AvailableNepali translation awaiting review

Roads, transport and infrastructure

Nepal has more than 100,000 kilometres of roads, but most local roads are unpaved, flagship projects keep missing their deadlines, routine maintenance has fallen, and Nepal Police recorded 29,078 road accidents in FY 2081/82.

Long-term goalSafe, affordable and accessible transport for everyone, with priority to public transport

The Constitution directs the state to give citizens simple, easy and equal access to transport, to make transport safe and friendly to persons with disabilities, to encourage public transport and regulate private transport, and to prefer environment-friendly technology. This is a direction of state policy, built over many years rather than in one budget.25

Urgent problemRoad crash deaths and injuries

Nepal Police recorded 29,078 road accidents in FY 2081/82. The 16th Plan puts road deaths at 9.5 per 100,000 people in FY 2079/80 and aims to cut this to 5 by FY 2085/86, so progress is measured year by year and each year of delay costs lives.32021

Urgent problemDelayed projects, contract failures and cost increases

The Auditor General found that most national pride projects keep adding scope and extending deadlines instead of finishing on time, and that 782 contracts under three infrastructure ministries were still incomplete even after extensions of up to 300 per cent. Money already spent on unfinished works earns no return until they are completed.415

Contested choiceNew roads versus maintenance, quality and other modes; and how to pay for them

Money and capacity are limited, and reasonable people weigh the choices differently: opening new roads to unconnected places, upgrading highways, maintaining what exists, building railways and tunnels, or investing in public transport. Financing choices such as tolls, public-private partnerships and dedicated road funds also involve trade-offs between users, taxpayers and investors. The 16th Plan itself asks for a balance between demand for infrastructure and the capacity to implement it.1226

Updated 2026-10-10 · Version 2 · Sources · Corrections & right of reply

Question 1

What is the issue, and why does it matter?

Nepal's road network had reached 104,906 kilometres by mid-March 2026. Of this, 36,806 km is built by the federal Department of Roads (20,456 km blacktopped, 7,602 km gravel and 8,748 km earthen), and 68,100 km is provincial and local road. Only 7.48 per cent of provincial and local roads are blacktopped; 71.46 per cent are earthen.12

Road crashes are a major cause of death and injury. Nepal Police recorded 29,078 road accidents involving 43,165 vehicles in FY 2081/82; 25,142 of those vehicles were motorbikes. The police list over-speeding as the cause of 13,651 accidents, driver negligence of 6,460, and drink-driving of 2,050.3

Large projects run years behind. The Auditor General's table of national pride projects shows the Kathmandu–Terai/Madhesh Expressway, started in 2064/65, at 42.13 per cent physical progress after Rs 80.56 billion of spending, with completion listed for 2083/84; the Postal Highway at 72.75 per cent; and Nijgadh International Airport, with a start year of 2071/72 in the table, as not yet started.4

Maintenance has fallen while new work continues. Department of Roads figures show routine or recurrent maintenance on 7,821 km in FY 2023/24 but 4,075 km in FY 2024/25, and periodic maintenance on 651 km and then 370 km. In the same year, 1,235 km of road were upgraded to blacktop.12

Roads and transport shape almost every other public service: how quickly people reach a hospital or school, what farmers earn for their crops, the cost of imported goods, and whether a landslide cuts off a district. Choices about which roads to build, how to keep them usable, and who runs buses affect people's daily lives as much as any other spending decision.

Question 2

What do current law and policy say?

Constitution (who does what): civil aviation, international airports, national transport policy, railways and national highways are federal (Schedule 5). Provincial highways and transport within the province are provincial (Schedule 6), and physical infrastructure is shared between the federation and provinces (Schedule 7). Local roads, rural roads and agricultural roads belong to local governments (Schedule 8). Both provinces and local governments may levy motor vehicle tax.5

Public Road Act, 2031: the Government of Nepal classifies public roads and fixes a road boundary of up to 21 metres on each side of the centre line, and may ban permanent buildings within a set distance of the road. A 2075 amendment added classes for national highways, provincial highways, local, rural, urban and agricultural roads.6

Road Board Act, 2058: sets up Road Board Nepal to fund road maintenance. The government may levy fees on road use, vehicle fuel, vehicle registration and foreign vehicles entering Nepal for the Board's fund, which pays for maintenance, approved road safety projects and enforcing axle-load limits; administrative costs are capped at 4 per cent of income.7

Motor Vehicles and Transport Management Act, 2049: aims to prevent vehicle accidents, compensate victims, require insurance and provide simple and affordable transport. It covers vehicle registration, driving licences, route permits for public vehicles, speed and weight limits, and compulsory vehicle insurance, and gives the Department of Transport Management powers including setting routes and public vehicle fares.8

Urban Area Public Transport (Management) Authority Act, 2079: lets a provincial government set up a public transport authority, chaired by the mayor, for one or more municipalities to plan routes, fares, integrated electronic ticketing and service standards. A separate authority is to be set up for the federal capital area (Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur districts).9

Local Government Operation Act, 2074: rural municipalities and municipalities plan, build, maintain and regulate local, rural and agricultural roads, suspension bridges and local road safety; set local public transport routes, permits and fares; may set the right of way of local roads; and must follow national and provincial road standards.10

Public Procurement Act, 2063 (as amended, most recently by the Second Amendment Act of 2083): a public body must not invite bids for works until the site, tree clearance, budget for compensation and any required environmental approval are in place. Mobilisation advances are capped at 20 per cent of the contract, paid in stages through a separate bank account. Price adjustment is allowed on contracts longer than 12 months, with a special adjustment for extraordinary price rises under a Cabinet-approved procedure, but not where delay is the contractor's fault or for lump-sum contracts.11

16th Plan (FY 2081/82–2085/86): plans an integrated transport policy, regular maintenance through Road Board Nepal with its own revenue sources, a heavy-vehicle (load) management policy, a review and enforcement of the national road safety master plan, a transport authority, public transport (including electric buses) run with provinces and local governments, and financing through public-private partnership, hybrid annuity, build-operate-transfer and road tolls. It also proposes special legal arrangements for projects costing more than Rs 1 billion.12

Budget for FY 2083/84 (2026/27): promises a 'mission mode' to finish projects on time and within cost through procurement reform, stable project chiefs and tracking of mobilisation advances; a sunset law for development projects to be tabled in Parliament within the fiscal year; and a pipeline of projects suited to the hybrid annuity model within three months. The budget speech also says the road maintenance and improvement fee collected at customs points, along with the infrastructure development tax, has been integrated into the Green Tax.13

Civil aviation: the FY 2083/84 budget says the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal will be restructured by separating its regulatory and operational functions by mid-January, with the aim of getting Nepal removed from the European Union Air Safety List, and that the private sector will be brought in to manage Gautam Buddha and Pokhara Regional international airports.14

Question 3

What is known, uncertain or disputed?

Known

Federal road building continues, with many projects running at once. In FY 2024/25 the Department of Roads built 301 km of new road, upgraded 287 km to gravel and 1,235 km to blacktop, and completed 118 bridges. By mid-March 2026 the Mid-Hill (Pushpalal) Highway had 1,529 km blacktopped and 114 of 137 bridges completed, and the Madan Bhandari Highway had 395.5 of 740 km blacktopped.12

The Auditor General's 63rd report (audit of FY 2081/82) found contract-management failures in agencies under several ministries, including the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport (each finding covers a different group of ministries, not the transport ministry alone): 782 contracts worth Rs 47.73 billion left incomplete after extensions of up to 300 per cent; Rs 5.79 billion that was to be recovered from contractors on 39 terminated contracts not yet recovered; price adjustments overpaid by Rs 370.7 million on 144 contracts; and Rs 199.8 million in penalties for late completion not collected on 19 contracts. It also found that 22 offices under the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport paid Rs 448.6 million in price adjustment on 75 design-and-build contracts, which the Auditor General says the law does not permit for lump-sum contracts.15

Performance audits in the same report found that the Mid-Hill Highway reached 82 per cent physical progress by FY 2081/82 against a revised completion target of 2084/85, with weak preparation, schedule control, inter-agency coordination and dispute resolution, and unsettled alignment through national parks and forests raising time and cost. A separate audit of national highway maintenance found no adequate policy and legal framework for maintenance, axle-load limits and fines not applied in practice, insufficient budget, repeated deadline extensions, weak quality control and no modern road asset management system.16

Vehicle numbers have grown fast, mostly motorcycles. By mid-March 2026, 6,249,732 vehicles had been registered, more than 5 million of them motorcycles. Of 831,059 embossed number plates produced by then, 88,340 had been fitted.21

Rail and cross-border links are limited. A 52 km passenger service runs on the Jayanagar–Janakpur–Bhangaha line (the survey's railway table gives 51 km), 68.6 km of track bed had been built on the 82 km Bardibas–Nijgadh line of the East–West Railway by mid-March 2026, and geological study for the Kerung–Kathmandu railway was about 90 per cent complete. On the Galchhi–Rasuwagadhi road to the northern border, 39 km of two-lane blacktop and 23 bridges were complete.12

Air transport: 35 airports were in operation in mid-March 2026, and Nepal has three international airports. The 16th Plan noted that only 35 of 54 domestic airports were operational and that regular commercial flights had yet to materialise at Bhairahawa and Pokhara. ICAO's latest safety oversight audit of Nepal (April 2022) gave an effective implementation rate of 70.11 per cent, up from 46.97 per cent in 2009, according to the Civil Aviation Authority.171218

Independent evidence on bridges points the same way. A World Bank completion report on its second bridges programme (2024) found that, before the programme, bridge budgets did not separate maintenance from new construction and were prioritised ad hoc, 'often driven by political expediency', so maintenance received scant attention and bridges multiplied on non-priority routes with over-procurement and under-completion. It recommends putting bridge maintenance and road safety upgrades into the government's annual road maintenance plan with a dedicated budget.19

Uncertain

Official road death rates differ by source and their bases are not explained. The 16th Plan gives 9.5 deaths per 100,000 people for FY 2079/80 (2022/23). The Economic Survey's SDG table, sourced to the National Planning Commission and the Ministry of Health and Population, gives a road traffic accident mortality rate of 9.4 per 100,000 for 2024, against 19.9 in the 2015 base year. Neither document says how its rate was calculated (for example, from police records or health data), so the two should not be read as one consistent series. Nepal Police's Police Mirror 2025 shows road deaths and injuries for FY 2081/82 by province and for Kathmandu Valley, but gives no national total, and we did not find an official national death count for that year in the documents we reviewed.2021223

Official progress figures for the same projects conflict. The 16th Plan said about 90 per cent of the work on the 1,857 km Postal Highway had been carried out (situation around FY 2079/80), but the Auditor General's table gives 72.75 per cent physical progress by FY 2081/82, and the Economic Survey reports 1,381 km (including link roads) blacktopped by mid-March 2026. For the 1,879 km Mid-Hill Highway, the 16th Plan gave 72.7 per cent complete, while the Auditor General gives 81.73 per cent (table) and 82 per cent (performance audit), and the Economic Survey reports 1,529 km blacktopped by mid-March 2026. The 16th Plan figures are the same in its Nepali original and English translation. The sources use different measures (share of work done, physical progress, kilometres blacktopped) and different dates, and the percentage figures do not explain their method, so the figures are not directly comparable.122141612

It is not clear how road maintenance will be funded after the FY 2083/84 budget speech said the road maintenance and improvement fee collected at customs points had been integrated into the Green Tax. The Road Board Act allows fees for the Board's fund, and the 16th Plan wants the Board to have its own revenue sources, but the budget documents reviewed do not say how much of the new tax, if any, will go to road maintenance.13712

There is no published national figure, in the sources reviewed, for the condition of the road network (how much is in good, fair or poor condition) or for the size of the maintenance backlog. The Auditor General notes the absence of a modern road asset management system, and the 16th Plan proposes one.1612

Disputed

Nothing recorded yet.

Questions 4–5

What are the options, and what do they cost and achieve?

Options are listed in no particular order. Policy Nepal does not recommend one; real policies often combine them.

Maintain what exists and finish ongoing projects before starting new ones231612191324

Give maintenance a protected budget and a strong Road Board, and limit new project starts until ongoing ones are funded to completion, selecting projects by cost-benefit analysis and only after design and land are ready.

Benefits
  • Regular maintenance extends the life of roads and bridges and avoids costlier rebuilding later; money already spent on unfinished works starts to pay off once they are complete.
  • Follows recommendations already made by the Auditor General (cost-benefit appraisal, no contracts before preparation is complete) and the 16th Plan (strengthen Road Board Nepal and regular maintenance).
Costs
  • Places still without all-weather roads would wait longer for new connections.
  • Maintenance needs steady annual funding; the source is unclear after the road maintenance fee at customs was merged into the Green Tax.
Trade-offs
  • New roads are visible and popular in constituencies; maintenance is less visible, so this option asks decision-makers to accept fewer ribbon-cuttings in exchange for longer-lasting assets.
What implementation needs
  • Build the road asset management system the 16th Plan proposes, publish road condition data, ring-fence maintenance allocations, and use the national project bank and multi-year source-assurance standards to screen new starts.

Tighten procurement and contract management11152313

Enforce the Public Procurement Act's rules on preparation, advances, price adjustment, extensions, penalties and termination, and add new tools such as the sunset law the budget promises.

Benefits
  • Could reduce the stalled contracts, unrecovered sums and overpayments the Auditor General found, and make extensions depend on evidence.
  • Clear rules on site readiness and utility relocation before bidding address causes of delay named in audit findings.
Costs
  • Stricter preparation can delay the start of projects and leave budgets unspent in the short term.
  • Enforcement needs skilled procurement staff and functioning dispute resolution; terminating contracts can itself stall work while new contracts are let.
Trade-offs
  • More control and penalties versus flexibility for genuine problems such as landslides or sudden price rises; the special price adjustment now in the consolidated Act adds flexibility for extraordinary price rises.
What implementation needs
  • Act on the Auditor General's procurement recommendations (objective criteria for extensions, holding contractors and responsible staff accountable, settling utilities before contracting), issue the regulations and bidding documents the amended Act needs, and table the promised sunset law.

Invest in and organise public transport25910813121

Set up the urban public transport authorities the law allows, run integrated bus networks (including electric buses) with common ticketing, and give buses and pedestrians priority on city roads.

Benefits
  • Follows the constitutional direction to encourage public transport and could ease congestion, cut fuel imports and serve people who cannot afford a vehicle.
  • Builds on budget plans for electric buses in Kathmandu and Pokhara and the 16th Plan's programme for public transport with provinces and local governments.
Costs
  • Buses, depots and charging networks need capital, and operations may need ongoing public support.
Trade-offs
  • Reorganising routes affects existing private operators and workers; road space given to buses and footpaths is taken from private vehicles, most of which are motorcycles.
What implementation needs
  • Federal, provincial and local governments must agree roles: route permits sit with the federal department and local governments, while urban authorities are created by provincial governments; the role, staffing and funding of the federal capital area authority provided for in the 2079 Act would also need to be settled.

Make road safety a priority in enforcement and road design3201226147168

Target the main causes the police record (speeding, driver negligence, drink-driving), build safety features such as barriers, markings and safe crossings into roads, and improve emergency trauma care and insurance.

Benefits
  • Directly aims at the 16th Plan target of halving road deaths per 100,000 people (from 9.5 to 5) and builds on the budget's road safety allocation of Rs 2.46 billion.
Costs
  • Enforcement needs police staff, equipment and data systems; safer design adds to road costs; higher third-party insurance raises costs for vehicle owners.
Trade-offs
  • Lower speed limits and stricter checks can lengthen journeys and cause friction with drivers and transport businesses; safety spending competes with road expansion.
What implementation needs
  • Review and enforce the national road safety master plan (16th Plan), apply the axle-load limits the Auditor General found unenforced, use Road Board funds for selected road safety projects as its Act allows, and carry out the budget's plans for a National Trauma Policy, accident-detection devices and third-party insurance of Rs 1 million.

Use new financing models: tolls, dedicated road funds and public-private partnerships1312715

Pay for major roads and their upkeep through user charges and long-term contracts with private partners, such as the hybrid annuity model the budget plans, rather than relying only on the annual government budget.

Benefits
  • Could bring in more money and spread costs over the life of an asset; contracts that pay for availability and condition can tie private partners to maintenance and timely completion.
Costs
  • Tolls add costs for road users, and long-term payment commitments become future liabilities for the government.
  • Partnerships need strong contract design and oversight; weak contract management, as found by the Auditor General for ordinary contracts, would carry over.
Trade-offs
  • User-pays is fairer to non-users but can burden poorer travellers and freight that has no alternative route; only some roads have enough traffic to attract private investment.
What implementation needs
  • Prepare the hybrid annuity pipeline the budget promises, amend laws so these models can be used (as the 16th Plan proposes), decide whether the Road Board keeps its own revenue sources after the Green Tax change, and make toll systems work as the 16th Plan intends.

Combining options

These options are not mutually exclusive, and current official documents already mix them: the 16th Plan combines maintenance through Road Board Nepal, road safety, public transport and new financing models, and the FY 2083/84 budget pairs procurement reform with large allocations for new highways, tunnels and railways. The real choices are about balance and order: how much of a limited budget goes to new works rather than maintenance and finishing projects, whether new financing is used for roads that are already ready to build, and whether road safety and public transport are built into projects from the design stage rather than added later. Contract and procurement reform affects how well every other option is carried out.

Question 6

Who is responsible?

Federal
Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport and the Department of Roads

National transport policy, national highways and strategic roads, and national pride road projects. The Auditor General found the ministry spent 22.75 per cent of its capital spending on roads outside national highways, and says such spending should be controlled.5115

Federal
Department of Transport Management

Vehicle registration, driving licences, route permits, public vehicle fares, speed and weight limits, and vehicle fitness standards under the Motor Vehicles and Transport Management Act.8

Federal
Road Board Nepal

Autonomous body that collects road-user fees and funds the routine, periodic and emergency maintenance carried out by road agencies, prepares an integrated annual maintenance programme and sets maintenance quality standards.7

Federal
Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation and the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal

Civil aviation and international airports are federal; the Authority currently both regulates aviation and operates airports, and the FY 2083/84 budget plans to separate these functions.51418

Provincial
Provincial governments

Provincial highways and transport within the province, motor vehicle tax, and physical infrastructure shared with the federation. A provincial government may set up urban public transport authorities with municipalities.59

Local
Local governments (rural municipalities and municipalities)

Local, rural and agricultural roads, suspension bridges and local road safety; local public transport routes, permits and fares; right of way of local roads; motor vehicle tax within their powers. Mayors chair the urban public transport authorities.5109

Federal
Nepal Police

Traffic enforcement and the official record of road accidents, their causes and casualties.3

Federal
National Planning Commission

Sets transport targets in the periodic plan and keeps the details of national pride projects that the Auditor General's progress table draws on.214

Independent body
Office of the Auditor General

Audits spending and contracts at all three levels and reports findings and recommendations each year, including performance audits of road projects and maintenance.1623

Question 7

What have parties and leaders said and done?

What was said or promised is shown apart from what was recorded as done. Every entry needs a dated source. A missing entry means the position is not established, not that someone opposes or is neutral.

Party positions on roads, transport and infrastructure are still being researched. To keep coverage fair, they will be added for every party with seats in the House of Representatives at the same time, each from that party's own documents. The records above are government and official records (budget, programme results, a law and an audit finding) and do not represent any party.

Said or promised

Stated position · 2026 (budget speech for FY 2083/84, 2026/27)

Government of Nepal (Ministry of Finance)

The FY 2083/84 budget commits to finish projects on time and within cost through procurement reform, stable project chiefs and tracking of mobilisation advances; to table a sunset law for development projects within the fiscal year; and to prepare a pipeline of hybrid annuity projects within three months.13

Recorded actions and outcomes

Funding decision · 2026 (budget speech for FY 2083/84, 2026/27)

Government of Nepal (Ministry of Finance)

The FY 2083/84 budget allocates Rs 286.48 billion for roads and urban infrastructure, including Rs 37.46 billion for the East–West Highway, Rs 17.64 billion for the Kathmandu–Terai/Madhesh expressway, Rs 28.52 billion for a nationwide road repair and maintenance campaign and Rs 2.46 billion for road safety works, plus Rs 2.93 billion for civil aviation. It targets about 1,000 km of blacktopping and 275 road bridges in the year.2614

Implementation · FY 2081/82 (reported in the Economic Survey 2082/83)

Government of Nepal (Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport)

In FY 2024/25 (2081/82) the Department of Roads built 301 km of new road, upgraded 1,235 km to blacktop, carried out periodic maintenance on 370 km and routine or recurrent maintenance on 4,075 km, and completed 118 bridges.12

Implementation · 2083/03/25 (authentication date as listed by the Law Commission)

Federal Parliament

The Public Procurement (Second Amendment) Act, 2083 was authenticated on 2083/03/25. The consolidated Act now requires site, compensation and environmental readiness before bidding for works, sets rules on mobilisation advances, and allows special price adjustment for extraordinary price rises.11

Outcome · 2083 (63rd annual report, covering FY 2081/82)

Office of the Auditor General

The 63rd annual report finds that, of 27 national pride projects, 3 are complete, 5 have reached 80 per cent physical progress or more, 4 are between 50 and 80 per cent, 9 are below 50 per cent, 4 have not disclosed progress and 2 have not started; Rs 504.55 billion has been spent on them, excluding the three completed projects. It concludes that most projects keep adding scope and extending deadlines.4

Question 8

What would progress look like, and when do we check again?

IndicatorLatest official figureOfficial targetRevisit
Deaths from road accidents per 100,000 people203 9.5 per 100,000 (16th Plan, FY 2079/80). Shown alongside: the Economic Survey's SDG table gives 9.4 per 100,000 for 2024 (2015 base year: 19.9). Neither source explains the basis of its rate, so the two are not one series. (FY 2079/80 (2022/23))202122 5 per 100,000 (FY 2085/86 (2028/29))2021 2027-06, or when Nepal Police or another official body publishes a national road-death total
National highways blacktopped up to two lanes21 7,675 km (FY 2079/80 (2022/23))21 13,675 km (FY 2085/86 (2028/29))21 2027-06 (after the Economic Survey 2083/84)
Road density21 0.63 km per square km (the Economic Survey separately reports federal blacktopped road density of 138.7 metres per square km in 2026) (FY 2079/80 (2022/23))211 0.77 km per square km (FY 2085/86 (2028/29))21 2027-06 (after the Economic Survey 2083/84)
Federal roads given periodic maintenance in the year1 370 km (651 km the year before) (FY 2081/82 (2024/25))12 No official target found 2027-06 (no official annual target found in the documents reviewed)
Physical progress of the Kathmandu–Terai/Madhesh Expressway4 42.13 per cent, after Rs 80.56 billion spent against a revised cost estimate of Rs 211.93 billion (FY 2081/82 (Auditor General's 63rd report))4 Completion (as listed in the Auditor General's table, based on National Planning Commission details) (FY 2083/84 (2026/27))4 2027-07 (end of FY 2083/84), or the Auditor General's 64th report

Sources

Grouped by type of evidence. Government plans show what government intends; they are not proof of results. Party material shows what a party says.

Constitution & law

  1. The Constitution of Nepal (English translation, incl. first and second amendments) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Gazette publication 20 September 2015; amended 2016 and 2020. Schedule 5 items 19–20 (p. 194); Schedule 6 items 4, 12 and 20 (pp. 196–197); Schedule 7 item 15 (p. 199); Schedule 8 items 4 and 11 (p. 200). Checked 2026-10-10
  2. सार्वजनिक सडक ऐन, २०३१ (Public Road Act, 2031), consolidated Nepali text — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Royal seal 2031/06/20; amended 2035, 2046, 2048, 2066, 2072 and 2075 (as listed on the title page). Title page (amending Acts), p. 1; section 3 (classification and road boundary up to 21 m), p. 3; section 3क (setback ban), p. 3; section 3ख (road classes, added 2075), p. 4. Checked 2026-10-10
  3. सडक बोर्ड ऐन, २०५८ (Road Board Act, 2058), consolidated Nepali text — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Royal seal 2059/03/24; amended 2066, 2072 and 2082. Preamble, p. 1; sections 3–5 (establishment, autonomy, functions), pp. 3–4; section 6 (fees), pp. 4–5; sections 14–17 (annual maintenance programme, funding, quality), p. 6; sections 24–25 (fund and its use, 4% administrative cap), pp. 10–12. Checked 2026-10-10
  4. सवारी तथा यातायात व्यवस्था ऐन, २०४९ (Motor Vehicles and Transport Management Act, 2049), consolidated Nepali text — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Authenticated 2049/09/22; 11 amending Acts listed, the latest in 2082. Title page, p. 1; preamble, p. 2; chapter 6 (transport management, routes) from section 74, p. 28; chapter 7 sections 115–116 (speed and weight), p. 38; chapter 8 section 148 (compulsory insurance), p. 44; section 153 (functions of the Department), pp. 46–47. Checked 2026-10-10
  5. शहरी क्षेत्र सार्वजनिक यातायात (व्यवस्थापन) प्राधिकरण ऐन, २०७९ (Urban Area Public Transport (Management) Authority Act, 2079) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Authenticated 2079/06/09 (Act no. 25 of 2079). Section 2 (definitions incl. federal capital area), pp. 1–2; section 3 (provincial governments may establish authorities, chaired by the mayor), pp. 2–3; section 5 (functions), pp. 3–5; section 12 (federal capital area authority), p. 9. Checked 2026-10-10
  6. स्थानीय सरकार सञ्चालन ऐन, २०७४ (Local Government Operation Act, 2074), consolidated Nepali text — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, 2074 (consolidated text as on the Law Commission website). Section 11(2)(ट) (local, rural and agricultural roads, suspension bridges, transport safety), pp. 18–19; section 11(4)(ट) (vehicle permits, local public transport routes and fares), pp. 29–30; section 11(5)(ग) (transport services), p. 30; sections 44–45 (standards and right of way), pp. 51–52. Checked 2026-10-10
  7. सार्वजनिक खरिद ऐन, २०६३ (Public Procurement Act, 2063), consolidated Nepali text — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Authenticated 2063/09/30; amended 2072, 2073, 2075, 2082 and by the Public Procurement (Second Amendment) Act, 2083 (2083/03/25), as listed on the title page. Title page (amending Acts), p. 1; section 4क (preparatory work before bidding; multi-year contracts), p. 7; section 52क (mobilisation advance), p. 52; section 55 (price adjustment incl. special adjustment) and section 56 (time extension), pp. 55–56. Checked 2026-10-10
  8. The Constitution of Nepal (English translation, incl. first and second amendments) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Gazette publication 20 September 2015; amended 2016 and 2020. Part 4, Article 51(h) (policies relating to basic needs of citizens), clause (14), pp. 29–30. Checked 2026-10-10

Government plans & policy

  1. The Sixteenth Plan (Fiscal Year 2024/25 – 2028/29) — English (unofficial translation) — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2024. Chapter 6 (Development of Quality Infrastructure and Intensive Inter-connectivity): 6.2 existing situation items 1–5, pp. 107–109; 6.3 issues and challenges items 1–7, pp. 111–112; 6.4 transformative strategies items 1–4 and 7, pp. 114–115; 6.5 major programmes items 1–5 and 21, pp. 118–121. Checked 2026-10-10
  2. Budget Speech for Fiscal Year 2026/27 (2083/84), English unofficial translation — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026 (presented to the joint meeting of the Federal Parliament). Paragraph 7(c) (road maintenance and improvement fee merged into Green Tax), p. 3; paragraphs 11–12 (mission mode, sunset law, hybrid annuity pipeline, district roads, road safety), p. 6; paragraph 21 (growth quadrangles; links to northern trade points), pp. 9–10; paragraph 22 (Smart Urban Mobility, electric buses), p. 10. Checked 2026-10-10
  3. Budget Speech for Fiscal Year 2026/27 (2083/84), English unofficial translation — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026. Paragraph 23 (Civil Aviation Authority restructuring; EU Air Safety List), p. 11; paragraph 32 (National Trauma Policy), p. 15; paragraph 53 'Civil Aviation' and allocation of Rs 2.93 billion, pp. 33–34; paragraph 60(c) (third-party insurance Rs 1 million; accident-detection devices), p. 39. Checked 2026-10-10
  4. The Sixteenth Plan (Fiscal Year 2024/25 – 2028/29) — English (unofficial translation) — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2024. Chapter 5, section 5.6 quantitative targets, table (a) Health, row 5 (deaths from road accidents per 100,000 population: FY 2022/23 actual 9.5, FY 2028/29 target 5), p. 102. Checked 2026-10-10
  5. सोह्रौं योजना (आ.व. २०८१/८२–२०८५/८६) (The Sixteenth Plan) — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2081 BS. National targets table, row 16 (road density), PDF p. 33; chapter 5, section 5.6 quantitative targets, table (क) health, row 5 (road accident deaths per 100,000: FY 2079/80 status 9.5, FY 2085/86 target 5.0), PDF p. 136 (printed p. 122); chapter 6, section 6.2(1) existing situation (Mid-Hill Highway 72.7 per cent of 1,879 km; Postal Highway about 90 per cent of 1,857 km), PDF p. 142 (printed p. 128); section 6.6 quantitative targets, transport table rows 1–8, PDF p. 158 (printed p. 144). Checked 2026-10-10
  6. Budget Speech for Fiscal Year 2026/27 (2083/84), English unofficial translation — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026. Paragraph 40 'Road Infrastructure', clauses (a)–(t), pp. 17–20; paragraph 41 'Urban Development', clauses (d)–(e) and total allocation (Rs 286.48 billion), p. 20. Checked 2026-10-10

Official data

  1. Economic Survey 2025/26 (English) — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026. Overview para 39 (total network 104,906 km); chapter 9 paras 9.13–9.16 and Tables 9(b)–9(c) (provincial and local roads), pp. 134–135; chapter 10 paras 10.1–10.24 and Tables 10(a)–10(c) (federal roads, national pride roads, transport, railways), pp. 139–144. Checked 2026-10-10
  2. आर्थिक सर्वेक्षण २०८२/८३ (Economic Survey 2082/83) — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2083 Jestha. Overview para 39 (total network १,०४,९०६ km), PDF p. 30; chapter 9, paras 9.13–9.15 and Tables 9(ख)–9(ग) (provincial and local roads), printed pp. 144–145; chapter 10, paras 10.3–10.24 and Tables 10(क)–10(ग), printed pp. 150–155. Checked 2026-10-10
  3. Police Mirror 2025 (प्रहरी दर्पण २०२५) — Nepal Police Headquarters, Government of Nepal, 2025 (covers FY 2081/82); listed at https://www.nepalpolice.gov.np/publication/3/. 'Road Traffic Accident' pages: vehicles involved by type (43,165), fatalities and injuries by province and Kathmandu Valley, printed p. 72 (PDF p. 88); causes and total accidents (29,078), printed p. 73 (PDF p. 89). Checked 2026-10-10
  4. महालेखापरीक्षकको त्रिसट्ठिऔं वार्षिक प्रतिवेदन, सारांश-२०८३ (Auditor General's 63rd Annual Report, Summary 2083) — Office of the Auditor General, Nepal, 2083 BS / 2026 (audit of FY 2081/82). Chapter on major findings, para 19 'राष्ट्रिय गौरवका आयोजना' and table of 27 projects (start year, completion year, revised cost, spending, physical progress; Rs crore), printed pp. 21–23 (PDF pp. 31–33); para 20 (transformative projects incl. Galchhi–Rasuwagadhi road, 64%), p. 23. Checked 2026-10-10
  5. महालेखापरीक्षकको त्रिसट्ठिऔं वार्षिक प्रतिवेदन, सारांश-२०८३ (Auditor General's 63rd Annual Report, Summary 2083) — Office of the Auditor General, Nepal, 2083 BS / 2026 (audit of FY 2081/82). Paras 38 (national highways; spending outside the ministry's mandate), 39 (price adjustment in design-and-build contracts), 40 (bridge design approval delays), 41 (electricity pole relocation), 42 (contract termination), 43 (price adjustment), 44 (liquidated damages), 45 (incomplete contracts), printed pp. 29–31 (PDF pp. 39–41). Checked 2026-10-10
  6. महालेखापरीक्षकको त्रिसट्ठिऔं वार्षिक प्रतिवेदन, सारांश-२०८३ (Auditor General's 63rd Annual Report, Summary 2083) — Office of the Auditor General, Nepal, 2083 BS / 2026. Performance audit summaries: para 103 (construction status of the Pushpalal Mid-Hill Highway) and para 104 (maintenance of national highways), printed pp. 46–47 (PDF pp. 56–57). Checked 2026-10-10
  7. Economic Survey 2025/26 (English) — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026. Chapter 8, paras 8.47–8.49 and Table 8(m) (key indicators of civil aviation), pp. 130–131. Checked 2026-10-10
  8. Aviation Safety Report, 2025 — Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal, 2025 (listed at https://caanepal.gov.np/publications/aviation-safety-report). Executive summary, p. 7 (EI 70.11% in April 2022 USOAP audit); chapter 8 'State Safety Oversight Information', p. 32 (audit dates; initial 2009 score). Checked 2026-10-10
  9. Economic Survey 2025/26 (English) — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026. Chapter 15, Table 15(e) (SDG 3 indicators), row 'Road traffic accident mortality rate (per 100,000 population)': base year 2015 19.9; target 2030 5.0; status 2024 9.4, p. 217. Checked 2026-10-10
  10. महालेखापरीक्षकको त्रिसट्ठिऔं वार्षिक प्रतिवेदन, सारांश-२०८३ (Auditor General's 63rd Annual Report, Summary 2083) — Office of the Auditor General, Nepal, 2083 BS / 2026. Chapter 5 (भविष्यमा गर्नुपर्ने सुधार): item 17 'आयोजना व्यवस्थापन', points 17.1–17.5, and item 18 'सार्वजनिक खरिद व्यवस्थापन', points 18.1–18.12, printed pp. 62–64 (PDF pp. 72–74). Checked 2026-10-10
  11. Economic Survey 2025/26 (English) — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026. Chapter 2, para 2.2 (Standards Relating to Source Assurance for Multi-year Projects, 2025), p. 26. Checked 2026-10-10

Independent research

  1. Implementation Completion and Results Report: Second Bridges Improvement and Maintenance Program (P161929), Report No. ICR00070 — World Bank, 24 December 2024. Section I context, paras 3–4 (bridge budgeting, political expediency, maintenance), pp. 1–2; section on risk to development outcome, para 78(b) (bridge maintenance in the annual road maintenance plan), pp. 17–18. Checked 2026-10-10

Corrections & right of reply

Parties, leaders and readers may ask us to correct an error or add a documented response. Corrections are published visibly with the date and reason; no one can pay to change coverage.

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Change history
  1. 2026-10-10 — First researched draft of the roads, transport and infrastructure issue page (status: review). (New topic page for the National Agenda; all figures taken from sources opened on 2026-10-10. Party positions intentionally not included pending all-party research. Conflicting official figures (road death rates and counts; Postal and Mid-Hill highway progress) are shown side by side, not reconciled.)
  2. 2026-10-10 — Removed the summed road-death figure (about 2,579, FY 2081/82) from the dek, classification, evidence and progress sections. The dek now cites the 29,078 accidents Nepal Police recorded. (Editorial rule: Policy Nepal does not publish its own totals computed from icon-read infographics. Police Mirror 2025 shows province and Kathmandu Valley casualty pairs with no labels and no national total, and it is unclear whether Bagmati includes the Valley. One search for an official national total for FY 2081/82 found none in an official document that could be opened. The sum is kept in the research notes only.)
  3. 2026-10-10 — Rewrote the road-death 'uncertain' item and the progress baseline to show the two official rates side by side (16th Plan 9.5 per 100,000 for FY 2079/80; Economic Survey SDG table 9.4 for 2024, 2015 base 19.9), with a statement that neither explains its basis. (Replaces the computed count. Both rates were re-checked at their stated locators.)
  4. 2026-10-10 — Kept the 9.5 to 5 per 100,000 road-death target and added the Nepali 16th Plan as a cite. (The English translation states the target clearly (Table 5.6(a), row 5). In verification the Nepali health table was also read (PDF p. 136) and matches, so the note that it could not be read was updated.)
  5. 2026-10-10 — Auditor General contract findings: replaced 'under the infrastructure ministries' with 'agencies under several ministries, including the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport', and listed the ministry scope of each finding in the source notes. (The OAG summary assigns each finding to a different group of ministries; the liquidated-damages finding includes the Ministry of Defence, and terminations include the Ministry of Water Supply.)
  6. 2026-10-10 — Nijgadh airport: 'listed since 2071/72' changed to 'with a start year of 2071/72 in the table'. (The OAG table gives 2071/72 as the start year, not the year of listing.)
  7. 2026-10-10 — Highway progress conflict: added 'including link roads' to the Postal Highway figure, added the Mid-Hill length (1,879 km) and the Economic Survey's 1,529 km blacktopped, stated that the 16th Plan figures match in Nepali and English, and explained that the measures differ. (Verified against the 16th Plan (Nepali and English), OAG table and performance audit, and both language versions of the Economic Survey.)
  8. 2026-10-10 — Green Tax: changed 'merges ... into a new Green Tax' to say the budget speech reports that the fee, with the infrastructure development tax, has been integrated into the Green Tax. (Budget para 7(c) does not call the Green Tax new; the measure is reported as stated in the budget speech, and its implementation was not checked.)
  9. 2026-10-10 — Public Road Act: 'may fix a road boundary' changed to 'fixes'. (Section 3 uses mandatory wording (तोक्नेछ).)
  10. 2026-10-10 — Rail: noted that the Economic Survey's railway table gives 51 km of passenger service against 52 km in the text; clarified that the 68.6 km of track bed is on the 82 km Bardibas–Nijgadh line. (Discrepancy is present in both language versions of the survey; disclosed rather than resolved.)
  11. 2026-10-10 — Public transport option: replaced 'the federal capital authority ... would need to be set up and funded' with 'its role, staffing and funding would need to be settled'. (No official source opened establishes whether the authority exists or operates; a news report says it was formed in 2079 BS but is largely inactive. Detail moved to source notes.)
  12. 2026-10-10 — Procurement option trade-off: 'leans toward flexibility for contractors' changed to 'adds flexibility for extraordinary price rises'. (More neutral wording of the same provision (section 55(1क)).)
  13. 2026-10-10 — Source notes updated: Economic Survey English/Nepali discrepancies listed by paragraph; Nepali Economic Survey locator extended to chapter 9 and the overview; 16th Plan English translation error on earthen roads recorded; Police Mirror note rewritten; Public Procurement Act note records the reported Supreme Court show-cause order (12 Aug 2026, no interim order) on tender-notice provisions not described on this page; Urban Transport Authority Act note records the news report on the authority's status. (Independent verification on this date; every source re-opened.)
  14. 2026-10-10 — Published after independent source-by-source verification. Party positions not yet included (to be added for all House parties together). Nepali text awaiting native review. (Editorial decisions: no Policy Nepal-computed road-death totals; official rates shown side by side with bases unexplained by sources; highway-progress measures disclosed as differing; Auditor General findings stated as findings with their scope.)