AvailableNepali translation awaiting review

Inclusion and representation

The Constitution promises that women, Dalit, indigenous nationalities (Aadibasi Janajati), Madhesi, Tharu, Muslim, persons with disabilities, people of backward regions and other groups it names will take part in state bodies on the principle of proportional inclusion. Quotas and proportional lists have changed who sits in legislatures and who enters the civil service, but most first-past-the-post candidates are men, and how reservations should be designed, and who within each group benefits, is an open question.

Long-term goalProportional inclusion in all bodies of the State

The Preamble commits to an egalitarian society based on proportional inclusive and participatory principles, and Articles 38, 40 and 42 give women, Dalit and other named groups the right to participate in state bodies on that basis. The 16th Plan sets targets to 2085/86, such as raising women's share of the Federal Parliament from 33.6 to 40 per cent and of the public service from 29.5 to 35 per cent. Reaching these is a multi-year task that depends on laws, parties and institutions at all three levels of government.34

Contested choiceHow reservations should be designed: by group identity, by need within groups, or both

The Constitution names groups for proportional inclusion, but also says Dalit facilities must be distributed so that Dalit women, men and Dalit in all communities obtain them proportionately (Article 40(7)), and directs the State to give priority to indigent persons within all sexes, regions and communities (Article 51(j)). The Civil Service Act reserves 45 per cent of open-competition posts by group. The Federal Civil Service Bill, 2083, registered in the House of Representatives on 2083-06-15 and not enacted, proposes 49 per cent, with half competed for by women only, an income or poverty-card test for the 'indigent Khas Arya' category in the other half, and a limit of one use per person at each of the non-gazetted and gazetted levels. A 2016 review summarises a debate among researchers on whether quotas should add economic criteria.313141524

Contested choiceHow the Article 265 review of the seven Part 27 commissions concerned with inclusion is carried out

Part 27 of the Constitution establishes the National Women, National Dalit, National Inclusion, Indigenous Nationalities, Madhesi, Tharu and Muslim commissions, and Article 265 provides that the Federal Parliament shall review them after ten years of the Constitution's commencement. That point has passed. Article 265 does not set the scope or outcome of the review. The National Inclusion Commission reports weak implementation of its recommendations, overlapping mandates between commissions and a lack of disaggregated data. How the commissions' mandates, resources and follow-up of recommendations are arranged is a design choice for that review.1219

Urgent problemWomen are a small share of first-past-the-post candidates, and reviews required by law are due

In the 2082 House election, women made up 396 of the 3,487 first-past-the-post nominations, according to the Election Commission. Where too few women are directly elected, the Constitution and the House of Representatives Member Election Act use each party's proportional seats to bring women to at least one third of its members in the Federal Parliament (Article 84(8); section 60(4)). Meanwhile, the Civil Service Act requires its reservation percentages to be reviewed every ten years, Article 265 requires a review of the commissions, and Article 281 requires the Government to appraise the special rights of women and Dalit alongside each census. The National Inclusion Commission and the 16th Plan both say the identification criteria and disaggregated data needed for such reviews are lacking.16781312194

Updated 2026-10-11 · Version 2 · Sources · Corrections & right of reply

Question 1

What is the issue, and why does it matter?

Inclusion here means two things: who has a voice where public decisions are made (legislatures, executives, the civil service), and who has a fair chance at the opportunities the State controls, such as public jobs. Nepal's Constitution answers both mainly through proportional representation, reserved seats and reserved posts for groups it names, plus constitutional commissions to watch over the results.

Nepal is highly diverse. The 2021 census recorded 142 castes or ethnic groups and 124 mother tongues among 29,164,578 people. No caste or ethnic group made up more than 16.45 per cent of the population.12

The Constitution makes inclusion a founding principle. Its Preamble resolves to end discrimination based on class, caste, region, language, religion and gender and all forms of caste-based untouchability, and to build an egalitarian society based on proportional inclusive and participatory principles. Article 18 allows special provisions by law for socially or culturally backward groups it lists, and Article 24 makes untouchability and caste-based discrimination punishable.3

Representation has grown but is uneven. According to the 16th Plan, women held 33.6 per cent of seats in the Federal Parliament, 34.5 per cent in provincial assemblies and 40.9 per cent in local governments in 2079/80, but only 29.5 per cent of public service positions and 13.7 per cent of policy-making positions in the public service.4

Reserved recruitment is now a large route into the civil service. In 2081/82 the Public Service Commission recommended 2,592 people for permanent appointment; 1,056 of them (40.74 per cent) came through advertisements reserved for inclusive groups, and 902 (34.79 per cent) of all those recommended were women. Over the 18 years since reserved recruitment began, 26,274 people have been recommended through reserved groups.5

Question 2

What do current law and policy say?

Constitution, rights: women (Article 38(4)) and Dalit (Article 40(1)) have the right to participate in all bodies of the State on the principle of proportional inclusion, and special provision is to be made by law for Dalit representation in public services and other employment. Article 42(1) gives the same right to economically, socially or educationally backward women, Dalit, indigenous nationalities (Aadibasi Janajati), Madhesi, Tharu, Muslims, backward classes, minorities, marginalized communities, persons with disabilities, gender and sexual minorities, farmers, labourers, oppressed or citizens of backward regions, and indigent Khas Arya. Article 40(7) says Dalit facilities must be distributed so that Dalit women, men and Dalit in all communities obtain them proportionately.36

Constitution, state policies: the political objective includes proportional inclusion, participation and social justice (Article 50(1)). Article 51(j) directs the State to let indigenous nationalities participate in decisions concerning their community, to make special provisions for minority communities, to make special provisions for the Madhesi community, Muslims and backward class including opportunities for indigent citizens within those communities, and to give priority to indigent persons within all sexes, regions and communities while providing social security and social justice. Article 55 makes these policies non-justiciable.36

Constitution, legislatures: the House of Representatives has 165 members elected by first-past-the-post and 110 by proportional representation (Article 84(1)). Parties' closed lists for proportional seats must ensure representation of women, Dalit, indigenous nationalities (Aadibasi Janajati), Khas Arya, Madhesi, Tharu, Muslims and backward regions on the basis of population, with regard to geography and regional balance, and must include persons with disabilities (Article 84(2)–(3)). At least one third of each party's members in the Federal Parliament must be women (Article 84(8)). Provincial assemblies are 60 per cent first-past-the-post and 40 per cent proportional, with similar list rules and the same one-third rule (Article 176). The Speaker and Deputy Speaker must include one woman (Article 91(2)), and the President and Vice-President must be of different sex or community (Article 70).76

House of Representatives Member Election Act, 2074 (as amended in 2083): a party's closed list must name candidates for at least 10 per cent of proportional seats, at least half of all listed candidates must be women, and the list must follow the population percentages in Schedule 1 while also representing backward regions and persons with disabilities (section 28). After seats are allocated, the Election Commission tells each party how many women it must elect for women to make up 33 per cent of its members in the Federal Parliament, and parties submit names following Schedule 1 'as far as possible' (section 60(4)–(6)). Schedule 1 now reads: Dalit 13.44, indigenous nationalities (Aadibasi Janajati) 28.72, Khas Arya 30.28, Madhesi 16.15, Tharu 6.52 and Muslim 4.89 per cent. It was replaced by an ordinance gazetted on 2082/09/04 and by the First Amendment Act authenticated on 2083/02/17.89

National Assembly: 56 of its 59 members are elected, eight from each province, of whom at least three are women, one is Dalit and one is a person with disabilities or from a minority community; the President nominates three, at least one a woman (Constitution Article 86(2); National Assembly Member Election Act, 2075, section 3(1)).710

Local government: each rural municipal executive includes four women and two members from Dalit or minority communities elected by the assembly, and each municipal executive five women and three Dalit or minority members (Articles 215(4), 216(4)). Each ward committee has two women members, one of whom must be a Dalit woman (Local Level Election Act, 2073, section 6(2)). Parties fielding candidates for chair and vice-chair, mayor and deputy mayor, and district coordination committee chief and deputy must make half of them women, unless they field only one candidate (section 17(4)).711

Civil service: federal civil service posts are to be filled by competitive examinations on the basis of open and proportional inclusive principles (Constitution Article 285(2)). The Civil Service Act, 2049 sets aside 45 per cent of open-competition posts and divides them as: women 33, Adivasi/Janajati 27, Madhesi 22, Dalit 9, persons with disabilities 5 and backward region 4 per cent (section 7(7)). For the first four groups the Act means those who are economically and socially backward, and 'backward region' means nine named districts. Unfilled reserved posts carry forward before reverting to open competition (section 7(10)), and the percentages must be reviewed every ten years (section 7(11)).1213

Pending bill: the Federal Civil Service Bill, 2083 was registered in the House of Representatives on 2083-06-15 and has not been enacted; the House's bill page records distribution to members on 2083-06-16 and no later stage. The bill proposes reserving 49 per cent of open-competition posts. Half would be competed for by women only, divided among Khas Arya 27.7, indigenous nationalities (Aadibasi Janajati) 25.7, Madhesi 15.3, Dalit 12.7, Tharu 6.6, Muslim 4, backward region 4 and women with disabilities 4 per cent. The other half would be divided among indigenous nationalities 32.5, Madhesi 19, Dalit 15.5, indigent Khas Arya 10, Tharu 9, Muslim 5, backward region 5 and persons with disabilities 4 per cent (section 11(1)–(3)). The bill defines 'indigent Khas Arya' as a person of the Khas Arya community who holds a poverty identity card under prevailing law or, until such cards are available, whose annual income is below the level set by the Government of Nepal, as recommended by the local level; 'backward region' means local levels as prescribed. One person could use the benefit of section 11 once at non-gazetted and once at gazetted level (section 11(10)), and applicants would submit prescribed documents proving that they belong to the group (section 11(11)). The bill's note on delegated legislation gives the expected effect of the rules under section 11 as ensuring that only the targeted classes and communities obtain reserved posts.1415

Constitutional commissions: Part 27 establishes the National Women Commission, National Dalit Commission, National Inclusion Commission, Indigenous Nationalities Commission, Madhesi Commission, Tharu Commission and Muslim Commission (Articles 252–264). The functions of the first three are set in the Constitution; those of the other four are left to federal law. The Federal Parliament is to review these commissions ten years after the Constitution's commencement (Article 265). Separately, the Government must appraise the implementation and impact of the special rights of women and Dalit on the basis of the human development index alongside each ten-yearly census (Article 281).126

16th Plan (2081/82–2085/86), chapter 8: the Plan commits to set criteria and indicators for identifying target groups and to build an integrated information system with disaggregated data; to resource the constitutional commissions for research; to adopt positive discrimination giving priority in reservation for public services and employment to castes, classes and communities that are weak in population share and in economic, social and human development; and to amend laws that contain contradictions on political representation.4

Question 3

What is known, uncertain or disputed?

Known

In the 2082 House election, parties fielded 3,487 first-past-the-post nominations, of whom 396 were women, 3,090 men and 1 other; their final proportional lists named 3,135 candidates, of whom 1,772 were women and 1,363 men (Election Commission press releases of 2082/10/09 and 2082/10/20).1617

The law uses the proportional seats to secure women's representation in the House: under Article 84(8) and section 60(4) of the Act, the Election Commission tells each party how many women it must elect from its proportional list so that women make up at least one third (the Act says 33 per cent) of its members in the Federal Parliament. The Commission completed the proportional seat allocation for the 2082 election on 2082/11/28 under section 60.7818

Public Service Commission, 2081/82: of 1,056 people recommended through reserved advertisements, 365 were in the women group, 273 Adivasi/Janajati, 233 Madhesi, 96 Dalit, 46 persons with disabilities and 43 backward region. Counting all routes (open, internal and reserved), 491 Adivasi/Janajati candidates (18.94 per cent of all recommendations) and 153 Dalit candidates were recommended, and candidates from every reserved group were also recommended through open competition.5

Applications for reserved posts were numerous and varied by group: in 2081/82 the Commission received 194,743 applications for 849 reserved posts, an average of 230 per post, ranging from 92 per post in the persons-with-disabilities group to 335 per post in the women group.5

Census 2021 counted 3,898,990 Dalit people out of 29,164,578, or about 13.4 per cent by our calculation from the National Statistics Office counts. Tharu people were 6.2 per cent and Musalman 4.86 per cent of the population in the census caste/ethnicity table. People with disabilities were 2.2 per cent of the population, according to the 16th Plan.214

The National Inclusion Commission says it made 33 recommendations to the Government of Nepal in 2081/82, but that implementation of its recommendations is weak, there is no clear basis or criteria for identifying economically poor classes, minority and marginalized communities and backward regions, mandates overlap between commissions, disaggregated data on target groups are lacking, and its recommendation on listing Khas Arya and Pichhada class surnames awaited Cabinet approval. It reported three office bearers in post.19

Uncertain

Women's share of the House elected in 2082 is not yet confirmed by an official aggregate; no total was found in the Election Commission press releases checked. As reported in the news: 14 women won the 165 directly elected seats (8.48 per cent, compared with 6 in 2074 and 9 in 2079), 82 of the 110 proportional members are women, and the House has 96 women in total (about 35 per cent). The Commission's published list of the 110 proportional members (2082/12/02) records each member's sex but gives no total. Republica reports 395 women among 3,406 direct candidates, which differs from the Commission's nomination count (396 of 3,487); the Commission's release of 2082/10/09 records one candidacy cancelled and 49 withdrawals by that date, and the rest of the difference is not explained in the sources checked.20211622

No official aggregate breakdown of the members elected in 2082 by Dalit, indigenous nationalities, Madhesi, Tharu, Muslim, disability or region was found. This page does not estimate such figures from members' names, because identity cannot be inferred reliably or fairly that way.18

Population percentages for the proportional lists differ by source. The gazetted Schedule 1 gives Dalit 13.44, indigenous nationalities 28.72, Khas Arya 30.28, Madhesi 16.15, Tharu 6.52 and Muslim 4.89 per cent. Kantipur reported in December 2025 that the new figures were Dalit 13.4, indigenous nationalities 28.2, Khas Arya 30.3, Madhesi 16.3, Tharu 6.5 and Muslim 4.9, replacing 2011-census figures of 13.8, 28.7, 31.2, 15.3, 6.6 and 4.4. The census caste/ethnicity table shows Tharu at 6.2 and Musalman at 4.86 per cent. Neither the ordinance nor the Act explains how census castes were grouped into these six categories. The gazetted law is what applies.98231

The Federal Civil Service Bill, 2083 (registered 2083-06-15; not enacted) is internally inconsistent on review: section 11(13) says the Government will review the provisions of section 11 every five years, while the bill's explanatory note on section 11 says every ten years. The note also lists the last category of the women-only half as persons with disabilities, where section 11(2) says women with disabilities. The bill's statement of objects and reasons and its notes on section 11 give no reasons for the individual percentages or for the income test. Its final content will depend on Parliament.1415

It is not clear whether the Federal Parliament has begun the review of the commissions that Article 265 required after ten years, or whether the Government has completed the Article 281 appraisal following the 2021 census. No record of either was found in the sources checked.12

Disputed

Whether reservations should rely on group identity alone or add economic criteria is debated. A 2016 review by Tek Bahadur Dong summarises critics who argue that reservations may weaken merit-based recruitment (Khanal 2007), that they treat each disadvantaged group as one homogeneous category so better-off applicants may benefit most, and that quotas should also use economic criteria (Toffin 2007) or not extend to groups whose human development index is above average (Lohani and Baidya 2009). It also cites Middleton and Shneiderman (2008), who hold that affirmative action is an absolute necessity in Nepal but that its benefits should serve the long-term interest of marginalised communities and the nation as a whole. Dong states that the reservation policy has helped recruit disadvantaged groups into the civil service and that it should also address economic and social variation within each group. Much of the evidence it reviews predates the 2015 Constitution.24

How reserved and open seats should interact is also debated. Dong cites Bishwakarma (2008), who argues that the government should select candidates from open competition first and then fill the quotas, so that the reservation system does not slow inclusion. The Public Service Commission's 2081/82 data show candidates from every reserved group were also recommended through open competition that year (for example, 316 women and 32 Dalit candidates among those recommended through open advertisements), but these figures alone do not settle how the order of selection affects outcomes.245

Questions 4–5

What are the options, and what do they cost and achieve?

Options are listed in no particular order. Policy Nepal does not recommend one; real policies often combine them.

Keep and strengthen the current quotas and proportional lists58133716

Keep the mixed electoral system, the closed-list group percentages and the civil service reservations largely as they are, update the percentages with each census (as the 2082 ordinance and 2083 amendment did), and enforce the existing rules more strictly.

Benefits
  • Builds on mechanisms with measurable results: about two in five civil service recommendations in 2081/82 came through reserved advertisements, and the Constitution and the Act use each party's proportional seats to bring its women members to at least one third.
  • Gives parties, candidates and the Public Service Commission predictable rules, which matters for planning careers and elections.
Costs
  • Leaves the rules for directly elected seats unchanged; women were 396 of 3,487 first-past-the-post nominations in 2082.
  • Leaves unanswered the question of who within each category benefits, which the Constitution itself raises in Articles 40(7) and 51(j).
Trade-offs
  • Stability and proven results versus the chance to fix design problems that critics and the National Inclusion Commission have identified.
What implementation needs
  • Complete the ten-yearly review of civil service percentages required by section 7(11) of the Civil Service Act, using census 2021 data.
  • Have the Election Commission publish official aggregate statistics on the composition of each legislature by the groups named in the law, using the groups under which candidates were listed.

Redesign reservations to add need-based criteria within groups31441924

Keep the constitutional groups but add rules so that benefits reach those with greatest need inside them: income or poverty tests, limits on how many times one person can use a reserved post, or sub-quotas within a category. The pending Federal Civil Service Bill, 2083 (registered, not enacted) includes a limit of one use per person at each level and an income or poverty-card test for the 'indigent Khas Arya' category.

Benefits
  • Follows the Constitution's own direction that Dalit benefits reach Dalit in all communities proportionately (Article 40(7)) and that indigent citizens within communities get priority (Article 51(j)).
  • Responds to the concern, summarised in Dong's 2016 review, that treating each disadvantaged group as one homogeneous category may let better-off applicants within it benefit most.
Costs
  • Proving need requires documents or official recommendations, which adds administration and may exclude eligible people who have difficulty obtaining documents.
  • Where exclusion is linked to caste, ethnicity, gender, language or region and not to income alone, an income test may leave out people the reservation is meant to include.
Trade-offs
  • More precise targeting versus simplicity and the risk of new disputes over who qualifies; whether any need test applies to every category or only to some is part of the design.
What implementation needs
  • Agree objective criteria for identifying need and target groups, as the 16th Plan and the National Inclusion Commission both call for.
  • Parliament's consideration of the Federal Civil Service Bill would settle which categories any need tests, one-use limits or sub-quotas apply to, and whether the review period is five or ten years.

Invest in access so more people can compete on equal terms4143

Put more weight on the conditions that decide who can compete for seats and jobs in the first place: education and literacy, exam preparation, language access, citizenship and other documentation, and accessible facilities for persons with disabilities. Quotas could remain, but the main effort would go into widening the pool of qualified candidates.

Benefits
  • Addresses conditions that quotas do not reach, such as education and literacy.
  • Benefits people in every group, including those who would not use a reserved seat, and may reduce reliance on reservations over time.
Costs
  • Results are slow and uncertain; it does not by itself guarantee representation in legislatures or the civil service.
  • Needs sustained spending by all three levels of government, competing with other priorities.
Trade-offs
  • Long-term widening of opportunity versus immediate, guaranteed presence in decision-making bodies.
What implementation needs
  • Link education, scholarship and skills programmes for target groups to the disaggregated data system the 16th Plan proposes, so progress can be tracked by group and region.
  • Make public service examinations accessible to candidates with disabilities, as the pending bill would require of the Public Service Commission.

Use the Article 265 review to settle the commissions' mandates, resources and follow-up, and build the data behind them1219423

Use the review that Article 265 requires to examine the seven commissions' mandates, staffing and budgets, how their recommendations are followed up, and the overlap of mandates that the National Inclusion Commission reports; and build the disaggregated data that the Article 281 appraisal and quota reviews need. The Constitution leaves the outcome of the review to the Federal Parliament.

Benefits
  • Responds directly to problems the National Inclusion Commission reports: weak follow-up of recommendations, overlapping mandates and missing data.
  • Better data would let any of the other options be judged on evidence rather than assertion.
Costs
  • The commissions are established by the Constitution for named communities and groups, and Article 265 does not specify the outcome of the review; changes to their mandates or structure would directly affect those bodies and the communities and groups they serve.
  • Stronger follow-up needs staff and budget; the National Inclusion Commission reported three office bearers and 22 staff, and lists budget and staffing not matched to its mandate among its problems.
Trade-offs
  • Separate mandates for each named community and group versus closer coordination where mandates overlap; recommendation-making bodies versus bodies with stronger follow-up powers.
What implementation needs
  • Federal Parliament to schedule and complete the Article 265 review in public, with submissions from each commission.
  • National Statistics Office and the commissions to agree classifications for the groups named in law, so that census, election and recruitment data can be compared.

Extend inclusion rules to directly elected seats and party nominations11161747

Apply candidate rules to first-past-the-post contests similar to those already used at local level, where parties must field women for half of the paired head and deputy posts, so that representation does not depend mainly on proportional lists. This is one possible route toward the 16th Plan target of 40 per cent women in the Federal Parliament.

Benefits
  • Applies where women's share is lowest: in 2082 women were 396 of 3,487 first-past-the-post nominations, compared with 1,772 of 3,135 candidates on the final proportional lists.
  • Builds on a rule voters and parties already know from local elections.
Costs
  • Limits parties' freedom to choose candidates, and more nominations do not guarantee more wins.
  • Single-member constituencies have no 'paired' post, so a rule would need a different design, such as a share of each party's nominations nationally or by province.
Trade-offs
  • More inclusive direct representation versus party autonomy and voter choice in each constituency.
What implementation needs
  • Amend the House and Provincial Assembly election laws, which the 16th Plan already commits to review where they contain contradictions on political representation.
  • Have the Election Commission publish candidate and winner statistics by gender and by the groups named in law after every election.

Combining options

These options can be combined, and current law already mixes several. The pending civil service bill (registered, not enacted) keeps group quotas (option 1) while adding a one-use limit and an income or poverty-card test for one category, indigent Khas Arya (option 2). Need-based rules depend on the identification criteria and data that option 4 would build, and access measures (option 3) can run alongside any quota design. The main choices are about balance and sequence: whether to refine reservations before or after the commission review and better data, how far to apply need tests and to which groups, and whether to change rules for directly elected seats or rely on proportional lists.

Question 6

Who is responsible?

Federal
Federal Parliament

Makes and amends the election laws, the civil service law and the laws on the commissions; must review the Part 27 commissions after ten years (Article 265); has before it the Federal Civil Service Bill, 2083 (registered 2083-06-15; not enacted).1215

Federal
Government of Nepal (Council of Ministers and the ministry responsible for federal affairs and general administration)

Proposes laws and ordinances on representation and reservations, sets civil service policy, and must appraise the special rights of women and Dalit alongside each census (Article 281).91512

Independent body
Election Commission

Checks parties' closed lists against the law and asks them to correct non-compliant lists, allocates proportional seats, and tells each party how many women it must elect to meet the one-third rule.818

Independent body
Public Service Commission

Runs reserved and open recruitment for the federal civil service, decides disputes over the number of reserved posts, and reports outcomes each year.135

Independent body
National Women Commission, National Dalit Commission, National Inclusion Commission, Indigenous Nationalities Commission, Madhesi Commission, Tharu Commission and Muslim Commission

Constitutional commissions that study, monitor and make recommendations to the Government on the rights, representation and inclusion of the communities and groups in their mandates; the National Inclusion Commission also studies whether its groups are appropriately represented in state organs.1219

Federal
National Statistics Office and National Planning Commission

The National Statistics Office produces the census data on which quota percentages are based; the National Planning Commission sets the 16th Plan targets and strategies on inclusion.14

Provincial
Provincial assemblies and governments

Provincial assemblies are elected 40 per cent by proportional lists with group representation and the one-third women rule; provincial governments may by law create their own government services (Article 285(3)).712

Local
Rural municipalities and municipalities

Local executives and ward committees include reserved seats for women and for Dalit or minority members; under the pending civil service bill, local governments would recommend who counts as indigent Khas Arya where no poverty card exists.71114

Question 7

What have parties and leaders said and done?

What was said or promised is shown apart from what was recorded as done. Every entry needs a dated source. A missing entry means the position is not established, not that someone opposes or is neutral.

Party positions on inclusion and representation are still being researched. To keep coverage fair, they will be added for every party with seats in the House of Representatives at the same time, each from that party's own documents. The records above are actions of government bodies and constitutional commissions (laws, a bill, and official outcome data) and do not represent any party.

Said or promised

Stated position · Registered 2083-06-15; distributed to members 2083-06-16

Government of Nepal (ministry responsible for federal affairs and general administration)

Registered the Federal Civil Service Bill, 2083 in the House of Representatives (not enacted). The bill proposes reserving 49 per cent of open-competition posts, half competed for by women only, with an income or poverty-card test for the 'indigent Khas Arya' category in the other half, and a limit of one use per person at each of the non-gazetted and gazetted levels.1415

Recorded actions and outcomes

Implementation · Gazetted 2082/09/04

Government of Nepal (ordinance issued by the President on the Council of Ministers' recommendation)

Replaced Schedule 1 of the House of Representatives Member Election Act with new population percentages for the proportional closed lists (Dalit 13.44, indigenous nationalities 28.72, Khas Arya 30.28, Madhesi 16.15, Tharu 6.52, Muslim 4.89 per cent) through the First Amendment Ordinance, 2082.9

Implementation · Authenticated 2083/02/17

Federal Parliament

Enacted the House of Representatives Member Election (First Amendment) Act, 2083. In the Law Commission's consolidated text of the Act, Schedule 1 is the only provision marked as amended by it, with the percentages above.8

Outcome · FY 2081/82 (66th annual report)

Public Service Commission

Recommended 2,592 people for permanent appointment in 2081/82, of whom 1,056 (40.74 per cent) came through reserved advertisements and 902 (34.79 per cent) were women.5

Outcome · 2082/10/20

Election Commission

Published the final proportional closed lists for the 2082 House election: 3,135 candidates from 63 parties, of whom 1,772 were women and 1,363 men.17

Implementation · FY 2081/82 (seventh annual report)

National Inclusion Commission

Made 33 recommendations to the Government of Nepal in 2081/82, including on workers, farmers' representation in state structures, persons with disabilities, minority castes and ethnic groups, inclusion in higher education, identification of backward regions and senior citizens, and reported that implementation of its recommendations is weak.19

Question 8

What would progress look like, and when do we check again?

IndicatorLatest official figureOfficial targetRevisit
Women's share of seats in the Federal Parliament4 33.6 per cent (FY 2079/80 (as given in the 16th Plan))4 40 per cent (FY 2085/86)4 When official aggregate statistics for the House elected in 2082 are published, and 2027-08
Women's share of seats in provincial assemblies and local governments4 Provincial assemblies 34.5 per cent; local governments 40.9 per cent (FY 2079/80 (as given in the 16th Plan))4 Provincial assemblies 40 per cent; local governments 45 per cent (FY 2085/86)4 After the next provincial and local elections
Women's representation in the public service, and in its policy-making positions45 29.5 per cent of public service; 13.7 per cent of policy-making positions (for comparison, women were 34.79 per cent of Public Service Commission recommendations in FY 2081/82) (FY 2079/80 (16th Plan); FY 2081/82 (PSC))45 35 per cent of public service; 20 per cent of policy-making positions (FY 2085/86)4 2027-10 (after the Public Service Commission's next annual report)
Civil service recommendations through reserved advertisements, by group (the law reserves 45 per cent of open posts; this is a legal allocation, not an outcome target)513 1,056 of 2,592 recommendations: women 365, Adivasi/Janajati 273, Madhesi 233, Dalit 96, persons with disabilities 46, backward region 43 (FY 2081/82)5 No official target found 2027-10 (after the Public Service Commission's next annual report), or when the Federal Civil Service Bill is decided
Social Empowerment Index (16th Plan)4 0.58 (FY 2079/80)4 0.65 (FY 2085/86)4 At the 16th Plan mid-term review

Sources

Grouped by type of evidence. Government plans show what government intends; they are not proof of results. Party material shows what a party says.

Constitution & law

  1. The Constitution of Nepal (English translation, incl. first and second amendments) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Gazette publication 20 September 2015; amended 2016 and 2020. Preamble, p. 1; Article 18(3) proviso, p. 10; Article 24, p. 13; Article 38(4)–(5), pp. 17–18; Article 40(1) and (7), pp. 18–19; Article 42(1)–(3), pp. 19–20; Article 50(1), p. 22; Article 51(j) [Nepali: ५१ (ञ)] clauses (8)–(12), pp. 30–31; Article 55, p. 33. Checked 2026-10-10
  2. नेपालको संविधान (युनिकोड, भाद्र २०८१ संस्करण) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, २०७२ असोज ३ (संशोधनसहित). धारा १८, पृ. ९; धारा ४० (७) र ४२ (१), पृ. १८; धारा ५१ (ञ) (८)–(११), पृ. २९; धारा ८४ (१)–(५), पृ. ४२; धारा २६०–२६३, पृ. १४०. Checked 2026-10-10
  3. The Constitution of Nepal (English translation, incl. first and second amendments) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Gazette publication 20 September 2015; amended 2016 and 2020. Article 70, p. 40; Article 84(1)–(3) and (8), pp. 46–47; Article 86(2), p. 48; Article 91(2), p. 50; Article 176(1), (3), (6), (7), (9), pp. 92–93; Article 215(4), p. 110; Article 216(4), p. 111; Articles 222(2)–(3) and 223(2)–(3), pp. 115–116. Checked 2026-10-10
  4. प्रतिनिधि सभा सदस्य निर्वाचन ऐन, २०७४ (House of Representatives Member Election Act, 2074), consolidated with the First Amendment Act, 2083 — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Authenticated 2074/05/22; First Amendment Act authenticated 2083/02/17. Section 28(1)–(10), pp. 13–14; section 60(1)–(10), pp. 30–31; Schedule 1 (amended by the First Amendment), p. 39. Checked 2026-10-10
  5. प्रतिनिधि सभा सदस्य निर्वाचन (पहिलो संशोधन) अध्यादेश, २०८२ (Ordinance No. 3 of 2082) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Gazetted 2082/09/04. Preamble and section 2, p. 1; replacement Schedule 1, p. 2. Checked 2026-10-10
  6. राष्ट्रिय सभा सदस्य निर्वाचन ऐन, २०७५ (National Assembly Member Election Act, 2075) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Authenticated 2075/03/20. Section 2(kha) definition of minority community, p. 1; section 3(1)–(2), p. 3. Checked 2026-10-10
  7. स्थानीय तह निर्वाचन ऐन, २०७३ (Local Level Election Act, 2073) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, 2073 BS, as amended. Section 6(2), p. 5; section 17(4)–(5), p. 11. Checked 2026-10-10
  8. The Constitution of Nepal (English translation, incl. first and second amendments) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Gazette publication 20 September 2015; amended 2016 and 2020. Part 27: Articles 252–264, pp. 145–155 (functions of the National Inclusion Commission, Article 259, pp. 152–153); Article 265, p. 155; Article 281, p. 165; Article 285(2)–(3), pp. 166–167. Checked 2026-10-10
  9. निजामती सेवा ऐन, २०४९ (Civil Service Act, 2049), consolidated — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, 2050/02/04; reservation provisions inserted by the Second Amendment, 2064. Section 7(7) and Explanations (1)–(2), p. 9; section 7(8)–(12), p. 10. Checked 2026-10-10

Government plans & policy

  1. सोह्रौं योजना (आ.व. २०८१/८२–२०८५/८६) (The Sixteenth Plan) — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2081 BS. Chapter 8 (लैङ्गिक समानता, सामाजिक न्याय तथा समावेशी समाज): 8.1–8.2, pp. 163–164; 8.3 challenge (3), p. 166; 8.4 strategies (6) and (10), pp. 169–170; 8.5 programme (1), p. 170; 8.6 quantitative targets table, p. 176. Checked 2026-10-10
  2. सङ्घीय निजामती सेवा विधेयक, २०८३ (Federal Civil Service Bill, 2083), as registered — Federal Parliament Secretariat, Registered in the House of Representatives 2083-06-15. Statement of objects and reasons, PDF p. 2; note on delegated legislation, item 9 (section 11), printed p. ii (PDF p. 5); explanatory note on section 11, printed pp. xiv–xv (PDF pp. 17–18); bill text section 11(1)–(14), printed pp. 11–13 (PDF pp. 55–57). Checked 2026-10-10

Official data

  1. National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity, Language and Religion report — National Statistics Office, Government of Nepal, 2021 census results (report undated in the extracted text). Chapter 2, section 2.1 and Table 10, printed p. 31 (PDF p. 40); section 2.2 and Table 11, printed p. 32 (PDF p. 41). Checked 2026-10-10
  2. राष्ट्रिय जनगणना २०७८: दलित प्रतिवेदन अनुसूची (Dalit statistics report annex tables, Dalit reports _Anusuchi.xlsx) — National Statistics Office, Government of Nepal, 2021 census results. Sheet 'Anu 12' (wealth classification of households), national rows 'जम्मा' and 'जम्मा दलित'; sheet 'Anu 13' (population), national rows. Checked 2026-10-10
  3. लोक सेवा आयोगको ६६औं वार्षिक प्रतिवेदन (२०८१ साउन देखि २०८२ असार मसान्त) — Public Service Commission (लोक सेवा आयोग), 2082 BS. Executive summary items 1 and 5–6, pp. III–IV; Chapter 8, Table 64 and 8.2, p. 75; Tables 65–66, p. 76; Table 73, p. 80. Checked 2026-10-10
  4. दर्ता विधेयकहरु (Registered bills) — House of Representatives, Federal Parliament of Nepal, Live page. Entry: सङ्घीय निजामती सेवा विधेयक, २०८३, registration no. 35, session 2, registered 2083-06-15, government bill, ministry listed as भूमि व्यवस्था, सहकारी, सङ्घीय मामिला तथा सामान्य प्रशासन मन्त्रालय; detail page https://hr.parliament.gov.np/np/bills/Sieu64dg records distribution to members on 2083-06-16 and no later stage (checked 2026-10-10). Checked 2026-10-10
  5. प्रेस विज्ञप्ति (माघ १ गतेदेखि ९ गतेसम्म सम्पादन भएका मुख्य-मुख्य कार्यहरू) — Election Commission, Nepal, 2082/10/09. Section (ख), p. 1. Checked 2026-10-10
  6. प्रेस विज्ञप्ति (समानुपातिक निर्वाचन प्रणालीतर्फका उम्मेदवारहरूको अन्तिम बन्दसूची प्रकाशन गरिएको) — Election Commission, Nepal, 2082/10/20. Paragraphs 1–2. Checked 2026-10-10
  7. प्रेस विज्ञप्ति (प्रतिनिधि सभा सदस्य निर्वाचनको मतगणना सम्पन्न सम्बन्धमा) — Election Commission, Nepal, 2082/11/28. Paragraphs 1–4. Checked 2026-10-10
  8. राष्ट्रिय समावेशी आयोगको सातौं वार्षिक प्रतिवेदन, आ.व. २०८१/०८२ — National Inclusion Commission (राष्ट्रिय समावेशी आयोग), 2082 BS. Foreword (मन्तव्य), PDF p. 7; report summary (प्रतिवेदन सारांश) items 5, 7 and 9–11, PDF pp. 9–10. Checked 2026-10-10
  9. प्रतिनिधि सभा सदस्य निर्वाचन, २०८२: समानुपातिक निर्वाचन प्रणालीबाट प्रतिनिधि सभा सदस्यमा निर्वाचित हुनुहुने उम्मेदवारहरूको विवरण — Election Commission, Nepal, 2082/12/02. PDF pp. 2–4 (list of 110 members with columns for sex, age and inclusive group). Checked 2026-10-10

Independent research

  1. Tek Bahadur Dong, 'Social inequality in the civil service and a review of affirmative action in Nepal', The South Asianist 4(2): 119–142 — The South Asianist (University of Edinburgh), 15 September 2016. Debate section, pp. 135–136. Checked 2026-10-10

News reports

  1. RSP dominates women's wins with 13 of 14 female MPs elected — Republica (Nagarik Network), 11 March 2026. Article body (aggregate counts only). Checked 2026-10-10
  2. Nepal Election Commission announces new proportional representation nominees — News On AIR (All India Radio), 16 March 2026. Article body (aggregate counts only). Checked 2026-10-10
  3. निर्वाचन आयोगद्वारा समावेशी समूहको प्रतिशत निर्धारण, कसको कति प्रतिशत ? — Kantipur (ekantipur.com), 2082 Push 6 (21 December 2025). Article body. Checked 2026-10-10

Corrections & right of reply

Parties, leaders and readers may ask us to correct an error or add a documented response. Corrections are published visibly with the date and reason; no one can pay to change coverage.

The submission channel is not open yet. It will open once an editorial contact and review process are in place.

Change history
  1. 2026-10-10 — First researched draft of the inclusion and representation issue page (status: review). (New topic page for the National Agenda; all figures taken from sources opened on 2026-10-10 (UTC). Group and commission names follow the Constitution. No figures on the caste or ethnic composition of elected members were estimated from names. Party positions intentionally not included pending all-party research.)
  2. 2026-10-10 — Independent verification (version 2). Every figure, date and legal provision was re-checked against the cited source at its locator; corrections below. (Pre-publication fact-check and sensitivity edit. Status stays 'review' and ne_status 'draft-needs-native-review'.)
  3. 2026-10-10 — Removed the census comparison of hill Dalit and Madhesi/Tarai Dalit literacy and household wealth (why section), the hill/Madhesi-Tarai split of the Dalit population count (evidence.known), and the references to those gaps in options 2 and 3. Replaced the why item with the group-level NSO figure: 36.0 per cent of Dalit households in the lowest wealth group against 20.3 per cent of all households. (Editorial decision: no comparisons between subgroups within a constitutional group, because they can read as ranking groups. Figures re-verified in NSO annex sheets Anu 12 and Anu 13. Article 40(7) is still described as a legal provision.)
  4. 2026-10-10 — Removed the news-based count of women directly elected (14 of 165) from the dek, the urgent-problem classification and option 1, and removed the News On AIR cite from the progress indicator. These figures now appear only in evidence.uncertain, labelled as reported. (Editorial decision: news figures for women elected in 2082 stay under 'uncertain' until an official aggregate is found. No Election Commission aggregate was found in the press releases checked on 2026-10-10. The Commission's official list of proportional members (2082/12/02) records sex per member but gives no total; it was added as a source for that statement only.)
  5. 2026-10-10 — Replaced the speculation that the Republica and Election Commission candidate counts differ 'probably because of withdrawals and rejections' with what the Commission's 2082/10/09 release records (one candidacy cancelled, 49 withdrawals by that date). (The page should not speculate where the cited source gives facts; the remaining difference is disclosed as unexplained.)
  6. 2026-10-10 — Federal Civil Service Bill, 2083: restated section 11 as the bill text gives it (49 per cent; women-only half; 'indigent Khas Arya' defined by a poverty identity card or, until cards exist, annual income below a government-set level as recommended by the local level; one use per person at each of the non-gazetted and gazetted levels; proof-of-group documents under 11(11)). Added status 'registered 2083-06-15, not enacted; distributed to members 2083-06-16, no later stage'. Corrected the wording 'an income test only for Khas Arya candidates': the test applies only to the 'indigent Khas Arya' category in the non-women half, not to Khas Arya women in the women-only half. (Editorial decision: describe the bill exactly as its text states, with registration date and status. Status verified on the House of Representatives registered-bills page and the bill's detail page on 2026-10-10.)
  7. 2026-10-10 — Disclosed in evidence.uncertain that the bill's explanatory note gives a ten-year review period against five years in section 11(13), and lists 'persons with disabilities' where section 11(2)(ज) says 'women with disabilities'; and that neither the statement of objects and reasons nor the notes give reasons for the percentages or the income test. Added the bill's own note on delegated legislation (expected effect: only targeted classes and communities obtain reserved posts), attributed to the bill. (Editorial decision: disclose the self-contradiction; give reasons for design choices only where a cited source states them.)
  8. 2026-10-10 — Removed uncited commentary on the bill's design from option 2 (the trade-off that applying a need test to some groups 'is itself a design choice Parliament will weigh', and the cost tied to the bill's poverty-card and local-recommendation mechanism). Option 2's costs and trade-off are now stated generally; its second benefit is attributed to Dong (2016). (Editorial decision: state the bill's provisions without commentary unless a cited source states the argument.)
  9. 2026-10-10 — Commissions: reworded the classification and option 4 so they describe the Article 265 review as a design choice about mandates, resources and follow-up, removed 'rationalise' and 'merging', and replaced the cost about communities possibly seeing a 'loss of a dedicated voice' with a plain statement that the commissions are constitutional bodies for named communities and groups and Article 265 does not set the outcome. (Editorial decision: the option must not imply that any commission is unnecessary, and views not stated by a cited source are not attributed to communities.)
  10. 2026-10-10 — Corrected evidence.known: the one-third women rule comes from Article 84(8) and section 60(4) of the Act, not Schedule 1 (which sets group percentages). The Nepali text now matches the English. (Factual error found on checking section 60 and Schedule 1 of the consolidated Act.)
  11. 2026-10-10 — Changed 'मधेसी समुदाय' to 'मधेशी समुदाय' in the Article 51(ञ) item and added the Nepali Constitution as a cite there. Spelling convention kept: मधेसी where the Constitution uses it (Articles 42, 84, 176), मधेशी where it does (Article 18, Article 51(ञ)(10), Article 262 Madhesi Commission), and each statute's own spelling when describing it (HoR Act Schedule 1: मधेशी, थारु; Civil Service Act: मधेसी; the bill: मधेसी, थारु; PSC report: मधेशी). Recorded in the source note. (Language rule: group names exactly as in the Nepali Constitution, following its own usage in each context. Verified on rendered pages 9, 18, 29, 42 and 140 of the Law Commission Nepali text.)
  12. 2026-10-10 — Article 51(j)(12) now includes 'while providing social security and social justice'. (Completes the provision as stated in the Constitution (English p. 31).)
  13. 2026-10-10 — Dong (2016): corrected the description of Middleton and Shneiderman (2008), who say affirmative action is an absolute necessity but that its benefits should serve the long-term interest of marginalised communities and the nation; added Dong's own statements that reservation helped recruit disadvantaged groups and should address variation within groups. (The earlier text presented Middleton and Shneiderman as simply on the other side of the debate; Dong groups them with critics while quoting that view. Checked at pp. 135–136.)
  14. 2026-10-10 — Neutral wording: 'Demand for reserved posts is high and uneven' changed to 'Applications ... were numerous and varied by group'; 'Targets the weakest point' changed to a plain comparison of EC nomination and list counts; 'This would serve the 16th Plan target' changed to 'one possible route toward'; the Federal Parliament 'is considering' the bill changed to 'has before it' the bill (registered, not enacted). Option 1's women-seat benefit and cost now rest on the legal mechanism and EC nomination counts, not on news figures. (Neutral verbs and no value judgements; no news figures outside evidence.uncertain.)
  15. 2026-10-10 — Federal Parliament position: summary now states only the enacted change visible in the consolidated text (Schedule 1 is the only provision marked as amended by the First Amendment Act, 2083). National Inclusion Commission position: 'minority communities' corrected to 'minority castes and ethnic groups' (source: अल्पसंख्यक जातजाति). (Editorial decision on legislation records; wording matched to source.)
  16. 2026-10-10 — Source records updated: locators corrected (Article 24 is on p. 13; census tables on printed pp. 31–32 = PDF pp. 40–41; Nepali Constitution pages added), notes added on the PSC total (2,583 civil service + 9 NHRC service), the ordinance, the bill's status and discrepancies, and the Dong HDI footnote (not used). (Accurate locators and disclosure of limits.)
  17. 2026-10-11 — Removed the newly added group-level household wealth comparison (Conservative default: avoid a new comparative statistic about one group without native and owner review)
  18. 2026-10-11 — Published after independent source-by-source verification. Owner waived the separate sign-off review; conservative editorial defaults applied. Party positions not yet included (to be added for all House parties together). Nepali text awaiting native review. (Editorial decisions: No subgroup comparisons; Policy Nepal’s own count of women elected not published (no official total); news figures kept only as reported under uncertain; spellings follow each source.)