AvailableNepali translation awaiting review

Environment and disaster resilience

Earthquakes, floods, landslides and glacial floods kill hundreds of Nepalis in a normal year, and a single event can cause losses equal to a large share of the economy, while a warming climate and polluted air add to the risk. The open questions are how much to spend on prevention instead of response, how to warn people in time, where people should live, and who pays.

Long-term goalFewer deaths and losses from disasters, and a society adapted to a changing climate

The Constitution directs the state to provide early warning, preparedness, rescue, relief and rehabilitation to reduce disaster risk. The national disaster strategy sets targets to 2030 for cutting deaths, affected families and economic losses, and the National Adaptation Plan runs to 2050. These goals take decades and depend on building, planning and spending choices made every year.101719

Contested choicePrevention or response, and who pays

A government report says Nepal spent about NPR 50 billion on disaster response and recovery between 2012 and 2020 and that planned-in-advance financing is still rare. The national strategy proposes that every sectoral agency set aside at least 5 per cent of its budget for risk reduction. Nepal's climate plans expect most adaptation costs to be met from international climate finance, and the 2026/27 budget promises to expand disaster insurance. How to split money between prevention, response and insurance, and between Nepal and outside funders, is a real choice.3618201926

Contested choiceProtect people where they live, or move them

The disaster law gives the national executive committee the job of relocating people living on riverbanks, steep slopes and other high-risk areas. After the 2026 Bhotekoshi–Trishuli flood, the press reported the disaster authority's chief saying people could not return to settlements the flood had swept away, while former senior officials, including a former head of the post-2015 reconstruction authority, cautioned against moving survivors far from their land and livelihoods. A small qualitative study of settlements built after the 2015 earthquake reports that some residents locked their new houses and went back. Moving can reduce people's exposure to hazards but can cost them land, income and community ties; staying keeps those ties but can leave them exposed. People weigh these costs differently.133332

Urgent problemRecovering from the 2026 Bhotekoshi–Trishuli flood and preparing for the next one

On 26 August 2026 an ice-and-rock avalanche in the upper Lhende Khola watershed, about 20 km upstream of the Rasuwagadhi border point, sent a debris flow and flood down the Bhotekoshi–Trishuli–Narayani rivers. As of 3 October 2026, NDRRMA reported 1,455 deaths (counting recovered bodies and partial remains) and 5,285 people missing. NDRRMA says these counts are provisional and still being verified, and may rise or fall. The government's rapid assessment puts total effects at NPR 408.29 billion and recovery needs at NPR 723.32 billion. Displaced families, damaged roads and hydropower, and remaining glacier and monsoon hazards need action now.43

Urgent problemUnhealthy air in the Kathmandu Valley and the Tarai

The Department of Environment's 2025 report found that four of the five monitoring stations with enough data for an annual average were above the national annual limit for fine particles (PM2.5) of 25 micrograms per cubic metre, with the highest levels in the Kathmandu Valley. Pollution peaks every winter and pre-monsoon season, so people are exposed each year.9

Updated 2026-10-10 · Version 2 · Sources · Corrections & right of reply

Question 1

What is the issue, and why does it matter?

Disasters are frequent. Between mid-July 2018 and mid-July 2024, government records counted 32,375 disaster incidents of all sizes. The executive summary of the 2024 national disaster report says they killed 3,672 people, left 446 missing and injured 11,752 (a later chapter of the same report gives 2,996 deaths). Landslides, fire, lightning, drowning and floods caused the most deaths.1

A single event can cause losses on a national scale. The 2015 earthquakes killed more than 8,790 people, injured 22,300, destroyed over half a million houses and caused damage and losses estimated at NPR 706 billion; recovery needs were put at NPR 669 billion. Poorer rural areas were hit harder because their houses were weaker.2

The 2026 Bhotekoshi–Trishuli flood caused very large losses. The government's rapid assessment estimates total effects of NPR 408.29 billion (about 6.69 per cent of preliminary GDP for 2024/25) and recovery needs of NPR 723.32 billion (about 11.84 per cent). As of 3 October 2026, NDRRMA reported 1,455 deaths, including partial remains, and 5,285 people missing. These counts are provisional and have not been reconciled.34

The monsoon brings losses every year. In the 2024 monsoon 495 people died; in 2025, 140 died and 30 went missing. The floods and landslides of 26–28 September 2024 alone killed 249 people and caused losses estimated at NPR 46.68 billion.56

Climate change is raising some of these risks. The 16th Plan says glacial lakes are growing in size and number and heavy rain is falling in shorter bursts. Nepal's climate pledge (NDC 3.0) says at least 47 glacial lakes are potentially dangerous and that Nepal has had more than 26 major glacial lake outburst floods since 1970.78

Air pollution is a constant health risk. Nepal had 31 air quality monitoring stations by 2025, but only five had enough data for an annual average, and four of those were above the national PM2.5 limit. The Department of Environment also points to pollution crossing the border.9

Most of these harms can be reduced but not removed. Safer buildings, warnings that reach people in time, keeping homes out of the most dangerous places and money set aside in advance all cut losses. Each has a cost, and choices about one affect the others.

Question 2

What do current law and policy say?

The Constitution gives every citizen the right to live in a clean and healthy environment, and victims of pollution or environmental degradation the right to compensation under law (Article 30). State policy includes advance warning, preparedness, rescue, relief and rehabilitation to reduce disaster risk, and the polluter-pays and precautionary principles (Article 51(g)).10

Disaster management is shared by all three levels of government (concurrent list, Schedule 9) and is also listed among local powers (Schedule 8). National and international environment management, national parks, and land use, settlement and environment adaptation policies are federal (Schedule 5); environment within a province is a provincial power (Schedule 6). The President can declare an emergency for a natural disaster, and a province may ask for one (Article 273). The Nepal Army can be used for disaster management under federal law (Article 267(4)).1112

The Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2074 (2017) creates a National Council chaired by the Prime Minister, an Executive Committee chaired by the Home Minister and the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority (NDRRMA). The Executive Committee must prepare risk-sensitive land use planning, relocate people from high-risk areas and ensure a national early warning system.13

The same Act requires provincial, district and local disaster management committees. Each local committee, chaired by the mayor or rural municipality chair, must make a local disaster plan, ensure the local level allocates a disaster budget, make sure building codes are followed, run an early warning system and an emergency operations centre, and hold drills. Every province, district and local level must have a disaster management fund, and the central fund is audited by the Auditor General.1415

The Environment Protection Act, 2076 (2019) lets the federal government set pollution standards and bans pollution above them (section 15), allows federal, provincial and local governments to make climate adaptation plans with priority for the most vulnerable (section 24), creates a council on environment and climate change chaired by the Prime Minister (section 32), and lets people harmed by pollution apply for compensation (section 36).16

The Disaster Risk Reduction National Strategic Plan of Action 2018–2030 sets national targets: cut annual disaster deaths (excluding road accidents) from about 900 to 225 by 2030, houses damaged each year from 30,000 to 15,000, and direct economic losses from 2 per cent of GDP to 0.1 per cent. It proposes that all sectoral agencies allocate at least 5 per cent of their annual budget to risk reduction.1718

The National Adaptation Plan 2021–2050 lists 64 priority programmes costing USD 47.4 billion to 2050, of which Nepal would contribute USD 1.5 billion and USD 45.9 billion would need to come from outside. Nepal's NDC 3.0 (14 May 2025) adds adaptation priorities for 2025–2035 estimated at USD 18–20 billion, expected to come from international climate finance, and says Nepal will seek money for loss and damage from the new international fund.19208

The 16th Plan (2024/25–2028/29) aims to raise the climate-responsive share of the budget from 6 to 20 per cent, extend local adaptation plans from 263 to all 753 local levels, have 293 municipalities implementing the National Building Code, and modernise weather forecasting and early warning. It says river protection results so far have fallen short of expectations.212223

The 2026/27 budget allocates Rs 12.31 billion to forest, environment and climate, including about Rs 1 billion for water conservation, landslide control and embankments in the Chure and Tarai–Madhesh, and an upgrade of air quality monitoring. It allocates Rs 3.17 billion to clear landslide blockages on highways and build climate-adaptive structures, promises to expand disaster insurance and other risk transfer tools, makes insurance mandatory when urban building plans are approved, and allows up to Rs 10,000 of home insurance premiums to be deducted from taxable income.242526

Question 3

What is known, uncertain or disputed?

Known

Of the 833,821 households whose homes were damaged in the 2015 earthquake, 736,767 had rebuilt by 2024 (88.36 per cent), and 925 of 1,136 damaged health facilities had been rebuilt. Urban recovery was slower: in Kathmandu Valley's urban municipalities only 38 per cent of earthquake-affected households had completed reconstruction.27

Warnings now travel fast in some cases. During the 2026 Bhotekoshi flood the Flood Forecasting Division sent 679,295 warning text messages through Nepal Telecom and Ncell, and officials phoned downstream areas asking people within 200 metres above the riverbank to move. For the 25–28 September 2026 rains, about 980,000 targeted flood warnings were sent and the forecast lead time for major rivers was extended from 3 to 5 days.428

The Disaster Management Fund reported in NDRRMA's annual progress report held about Rs 4.26 billion at the start of 2025/26 (2082/83). It received about Rs 53 million and spent about Rs 203 million during the year; after a small bank adjustment, about Rs 4.11 billion remained.29

The Auditor General's latest annual report recommends building climate and disaster risk into every stage of project selection, design and implementation, and including early warning and both structural and non-structural measures in project management.30

Air pollution is highest in winter and before the monsoon and lowest during the monsoon. The Department of Environment links the highest levels in the Kathmandu Valley and the Tarai to traffic, industry and construction, and found from back-trajectory analysis that cross-border pollution also matters.9

Uncertain

The final death toll of the 2026 Bhotekoshi–Trishuli flood is not yet known. NDRRMA's counts are provisional and have not been reconciled: as of 10 September 2026 the rapid assessment recorded 1,377 recovered bodies and records of human remains and 5,130 people missing, and as of 3 October 2026 NDRRMA reported 1,455 deaths (including partial remains) and 5,285 missing. The government says these categories are not mutually exclusive and that the missing list may include unidentified dead, duplicate records or people later rescued, so the figures may rise or fall.314

Figures differ between and within official documents, and this page does not choose between them. The 2024 national disaster report gives 3,672 deaths for 2018–2024 in its executive summary but 2,996 in chapter 2. It labels 88.36 per cent as the overall housing reconstruction rate in one place (which matches its counts of 736,767 of 833,821 households) and as the rural rate in another, and it calls its six-year economic loss figure a 'five-year' total. For the September 2024 floods, the disaster authority's assessment gives 249 deaths in its summary but 246 and 238 in other sections, and reports 10,807 displaced families, while Nepal's NDC says about 11,000.12768

There is no recent official national figure for average annual disaster deaths on the same basis as the 2030 target. The 2024 report counts all hazards including fire and animal attacks, while monsoon reports cover only the monsoon period, so neither is directly comparable with the strategy's baseline of about 900 deaths a year.1715

Air quality data are thin. Of 31 monitoring stations, only 14 had enough data to be used in the 2025 report and only five for an annual average, so national trends are uncertain. The NDC's air pollution health target (77 per 100,000 by 2030) does not state a baseline or exactly what is measured.920

Nepal's plans expect most adaptation and loss-and-damage spending to come from international finance. How much of that finance will arrive, and so how much of the National Adaptation Plan and NDC adaptation priorities will actually be delivered, is uncertain.1920

Disputed

Whether relocation works. After 2015, government built integrated settlements for households from high-risk sites. A small qualitative study of 12 of them, based on field visits and informal conversations with residents, reports concerns about livelihoods, cultural practice and space, and that some families locked their new houses and returned; its authors link this to residents being left out of decisions (the authors note that two of them worked in post-earthquake reconstruction, including advisory roles with the reconstruction authority). After the 2026 flood, The Kathmandu Post reported (3 September 2026) that NDRRMA's chief executive said people could not return to settlements the flood had swept away and that options included safer land within the affected districts or in other districts. A former head of the reconstruction authority said moving people far from their homes had not been feasible after 2015, but also that people should not be made to stay in places that are unsafe; other former officials quoted also cautioned against moving people far.3233

How much to rely on embankments and other river works. The 16th Plan says 1,364 km of embankments have been built but that outcomes in protecting settlements, farmland and infrastructure have fallen short of expectations. The 2026 flood assessment's recovery needs include NPR 94.75 billion for disaster risk reduction, mostly for river management and settlement protection works, and NPR 350 million for a multi-hazard early warning system; it says it did not comprehensively evaluate how well warnings worked.2334

Questions 4–5

What are the options, and what do they cost and achieve?

Options are listed in no particular order. Policy Nepal does not recommend one; real policies often combine them.

Prevention first: safer buildings and risk-aware public works2222314183063

Move money from responding after disasters to reducing risk before them: enforce the building code in every municipality, retrofit schools, hospitals and government buildings, require climate and disaster risk checks for all major projects, and ring-fence a share of every budget for risk reduction.

Benefits
  • Addresses a weakness the 2015 assessment highlighted: it said the earthquake damage exposed houses that had no earthquake-resistant features or were not built to the building codes.
  • Protects roads, bridges, hydropower and water systems: infrastructure was the largest category of damage in both the September 2024 floods and the 2026 Bhotekoshi–Trishuli flood.
Costs
  • Needs engineers and building inspectors in every municipality, and money up front that competes with other services.
  • Stricter codes raise building costs for poorer households unless there is support.
Trade-offs
  • The benefits are years away and hard to see, while a budget set aside for prevention may be raided after a big disaster.
  • Structural works such as embankments can protect some places while moving risk elsewhere; the 16th Plan says their results have fallen short so far.
What implementation needs
  • Reach the 16th Plan target of 293 municipalities implementing the National Building Code, and use the local disaster committees' legal duty to enforce codes.
  • Turn the strategy's proposed minimum of 5 per cent of sectoral budgets for risk reduction into a rule, and follow the Auditor General's advice to build risk checks into every project stage.

Warn everyone in time, and make local response work20428341435

Extend multi-hazard early warning to every river basin and dangerous glacial lake, share hazard data across borders, and make sure each of the 753 local levels has a working emergency operations centre, trained volunteers, evacuation plans and regular drills.

Benefits
  • Can save lives quickly; warning systems already send hundreds of thousands of messages in major events.
  • Builds on targets Nepal has already set: 30 more multi-hazard warning systems and 80 per cent of people in flood-prone areas covered by 2030, and warning systems at more glacial lakes.
Costs
  • Stations, communications and backup power must be maintained every year; floods have destroyed gauging stations at the moment they were needed.
  • Local staff and volunteers need regular training and pay.
Trade-offs
  • Warnings save lives but not houses, roads or farmland, and they work poorly for earthquakes and very fast floods with only minutes of notice.
  • Hazards that start in Tibet (China) depend on information from across the border, which Nepal does not control.
What implementation needs
  • Finalise the national strategic action plan for multi-hazard early warning promised in the NDC, and check whether warnings reached people in time and could be understood and acted on; the 2026 flood assessment says a later assessment of that event should examine this.
  • Use the duties already in the disaster law for local committees to run early warning and emergency operations centres, with federal technical help.

Keep people out of the most dangerous places: risk-based land use and planned relocation13273233224

Map hazards, stop new building in the highest-risk zones, and help households living on riverbanks, unstable slopes and glacial flood paths move to safer land nearby, with land, housing support and livelihoods.

Benefits
  • Removes people from harm permanently, instead of rebuilding in the same place after each disaster.
  • Already required by law: the Executive Committee must prepare risk-sensitive land use plans and relocate people from high-risk areas.
Costs
  • Safe land is hard to find: a former head of the reconstruction authority was reported as saying that few viable sites could be found in Rasuwa after 2015. The need is already large: in 2024 NDRRMA reported geo-hazard assessments and resettlement programmes under way in about 671 settlements across 29 districts.
  • Moving people can cut them off from farmland, jobs, schools and community.
  • Many displaced families have little to fall back on: in an official survey of 2,027 households affected by the 2026 flood, only 25.3 per cent had their own land for temporary structures and only 8.0 per cent owned another home outside the flood-affected area.
Trade-offs
  • Safety versus livelihood and identity: a small study of past integrated settlements reports that some families returned to their original sites when the new place did not work for them.
  • Restricting building on private land is unpopular and can reduce land values, which raises questions of compensation.
What implementation needs
  • Involve affected families and all three levels of government in choosing sites, as the authors of the study of integrated settlements recommend.
  • Carry out the land use and spatial planning reforms in the 16th Plan, and move roads and other infrastructure to safer ground first where settlements will follow.

Pay for disasters in advance: funds, insurance and pre-agreed finance3626291523

Plan how disasters will be paid for before they happen: keep and use disaster funds at every level, expand home, crop and public-asset insurance, and agree contingent credit or other instruments so money flows quickly after a big event.

Benefits
  • Avoids cutting other spending after each disaster; government says paying after the event, as it has mostly done, is not financially sustainable.
  • Insurance pricing can reward safer building and discourage building in hazard zones.
Costs
  • Premiums are a cost to households and to government every year, including years with no disaster.
  • Money held in funds is idle unless rules allow it to be used for preparedness as well as relief; the Disaster Management Fund in NDRRMA's annual progress report held about Rs 4.11 billion at the end of 2025/26.
Trade-offs
  • Mandatory insurance spreads protection but can burden poorer families; voluntary schemes leave the poorest uncovered unless premiums are subsidised.
  • Insurance pays for losses but does not stop them, so it works best alongside prevention.
What implementation needs
  • Carry out the National Strategy for the Management of Disaster Risk Financing (2021) and the 2026/27 budget measures: insurance with urban building approvals and a tax deduction for home insurance premiums.
  • Set clear rules for provincial and local disaster funds so they can pay for preparedness and recovery, not only relief.

Local adaptation and cleaner air, funded by climate finance737211920891624

Put climate adaptation plans in all 753 local levels, raise the climate-responsive share of the budget, reduce glacial lake risks, cut air pollution from vehicles, industry, brick kilns and burning, and pursue international climate and loss-and-damage finance to pay for it.

Benefits
  • Matches commitments Nepal has already made in the 16th Plan, the National Adaptation Plan and the NDC.
  • Cleaner air brings health benefits every year, not only when disaster strikes.
Costs
  • The National Adaptation Plan alone is costed at USD 47.4 billion to 2050, nearly all expected from outside sources.
  • Pollution controls raise costs for transport operators, industries and brick kilns.
Trade-offs
  • Relying on international finance makes delivery depend on decisions outside Nepal; paying more from Nepal's own budget means less for other services.
  • Part of Nepal's air pollution comes from across the border, so domestic measures alone cannot fully fix it.
What implementation needs
  • Use the climate budget tagging system and the local adaptation plan framework, and track the 16th Plan targets for adaptation plans and climate-responsive budgets.
  • Expand reliable air quality monitoring, as the budget proposes, enforce the pollution standards allowed under the Environment Protection Act, and use the NDC's GLOF targets to prioritise glacial lakes.

Combining options

These options can be combined. Early warning saves lives quickly but does not protect buildings, so it is often paired with prevention and safer building. Land use rules and relocation reduce the losses that insurance and disaster funds have to pay for. Climate finance could pay for parts of all the others. The real choices are about balance and order: how much of a limited budget goes to prevention rather than response, which hazards and places come first, and how much to depend on outside money.

Question 6

Who is responsible?

Federal
National Council for Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (chaired by the Prime Minister)

Sets national disaster policy and plans, guides provinces and local levels, and directs how disaster resources are managed. Its members include all federal ministers, the Leader of the Opposition and all Chief Ministers.13

Federal
Executive Committee (chaired by the Home Minister) and Ministry of Home Affairs

Turns policy into plans, prepares risk maps and risk-sensitive land use plans, relocates people from high-risk areas, ensures a national early warning system and recommends minimum relief standards to the government.1315

Federal
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority (NDRRMA)

Secretariat of the Council and Executive Committee. Runs the National Emergency Operations Centre and the national disaster information system (BIPAD), coordinates search, rescue and relief, supports provinces and local levels, leads damage assessments, and operates the central Disaster Management Fund as the Executive Committee decides.1315329

Federal
Ministry of Forests and Environment and Department of Environment

The Ministry is Nepal's climate change focal point: it led the NDC and is responsible for reviewing and reporting on the National Adaptation Plan. The Department of Environment operates the air quality monitoring network and reports on air quality.3819916

Federal
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology

Issues weather bulletins and flood forecasts and sends flood warning messages; the 16th Plan plans to modernise its stations and introduce impact-based forecasting.42823

Federal
National Planning Commission and Ministry of Finance

The Planning Commission sets periodic plan targets and led the 2015 needs assessment; it supported the 2026 rapid assessment. The Finance Ministry allocates budgets, and its agreement is needed before foreign grants or loans go into the Disaster Management Fund.231524

Federal
Nepal Army, Nepal Police and Armed Police Force

Carry out search, rescue and relief, give warnings and run training under the direction of the disaster authorities; the government may deploy the Army in disasters.1512

Provincial
Provincial governments (Provincial Disaster Management Council and Executive Committee)

Make provincial disaster policies and plans, coordinate local preparedness, run provincial early warning and information systems, relocate people from unsafe areas, manage provincial disaster funds, and manage environment within the province.1411

Shared
District Disaster Management Committees (chaired by the Chief District Officer)

Prepare district response plans, run district emergency operations centres, lead search, rescue and relief, and coordinate federal, provincial and local agencies in the district.14

Local
Local governments (Local Disaster Management Committees)

Make local disaster plans, allocate a disaster budget, enforce building codes, run local early warning and emergency operations centres, form ward-level response committees, record losses and issue identity cards to affected households. Local levels can also make climate adaptation plans and are responsible for local environment protection.141611

Independent body
Office of the Auditor General

Audits the Disaster Management Fund and the Environment Protection Fund, and recommends reforms, including building disaster and climate risk into public projects.151630

Question 7

What have parties and leaders said and done?

What was said or promised is shown apart from what was recorded as done. Every entry needs a dated source. A missing entry means the position is not established, not that someone opposes or is neutral.

Party positions on disasters, climate adaptation and air quality are still being researched. To keep coverage fair, they will be added for every party with seats in the House of Representatives at the same time, each from that party's own documents. The records above are government actions (budget, funds, emergency declarations and international commitments) and do not represent any party.

Said or promised

Promise · Budget for FY 2026/27 (2083/84)

Government of Nepal (Ministry of Finance)

The 2026/27 budget speech promises to expand risk transfer tools including insurance for post-disaster compensation, relief and reconstruction, to make insurance mandatory when urban building plans are approved, and to strengthen disaster responders.26

Promise · 14 May 2025

Government of Nepal (Ministry of Forests and Environment)

In its NDC 3.0, Nepal committed by 2030 to 30 additional multi-hazard early warning systems, flood warning access for 80 per cent of people in flood-prone areas, early warning at 6 glacial lakes and regulated outflows from 4, and by 2035 to local adaptation plans in all 753 local governments. The NDC expects its adaptation priorities to be paid for from international climate finance and support.20

Recorded actions and outcomes

Funding decision · Budget for FY 2026/27 (2083/84)

Government of Nepal (Ministry of Finance)

The 2026/27 budget allocates Rs 12.31 billion to forest, environment and climate (paragraph 51), including about Rs 1 billion for water conservation, landslide control and embankments in the Chure and Tarai–Madhesh, and Rs 3.17 billion to clear landslide blockages on highways (paragraph 40(s)).2425

Implementation · 26 August – 3 October 2026

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority

For the 2026 Bhotekoshi–Trishuli flood, government relief allocations totalled NPR 370 million: NPR 25 million to district administrations, NPR 135 million to 15 affected local governments and NPR 210 million for search-and-rescue equipment. An alternative housing and livelihood grant was approved for families not staying in holding centres: NPR 15,000 a month for a family of up to four, plus NPR 2,000 a month for each additional member, for up to six months or until alternative housing is arranged.4

Funding decision · FY 2082/83 (2025/26)

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority

NDRRMA's annual progress report states that in FY 2025/26 (2082/83) the Disaster Management Fund received about Rs 53 million and spent about Rs 203 million, ending the year with about Rs 4.11 billion.29

Implementation · 2082 Saun 8 and 2082 Asoj 23

Government of Nepal (Council of Ministers)

During the 2025 monsoon the Council of Ministers declared all of Madhesh Province a disaster crisis area for three months because of drought (2082 Saun 8) and Ilam district for three months after heavy rain (2082 Asoj 23).5

Question 8

What would progress look like, and when do we check again?

IndicatorLatest official figureOfficial targetRevisit
Annual average deaths from disasters (excluding road accidents)171 About 900 a year (Average to 2015 (MoHA data from 1971))17 300 by 2025; 225 by 2030 (2030)17 2027-07
Annual direct economic loss from disasters as a share of GDP173 About 2 per cent (Average to 2015)17 0.2 per cent by 2025; 0.1 per cent by 2030 (2030)17 2027-07
Local levels that have made and are implementing local adaptation plans of action21 263 (FY 2022/23 (2079/80))21 753 (all local levels) (FY 2028/29 (2085/86))2120 2027-08
Share of people in flood-prone areas with access to flood early warning20 Not established 80 per cent, with 30 additional multi-hazard early warning systems (2030)20 2027-06
Disease burden from outdoor and household air pollution209 Not established 77 per 100,000 by 2030; 60 per 100,000 by 2035 (the NDC does not state the baseline or exact measure) (2030)20 2027-06

Sources

Grouped by type of evidence. Government plans show what government intends; they are not proof of results. Party material shows what a party says.

Constitution & law

  1. The Constitution of Nepal (English translation, as amended by the Second Amendment, 2020) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Promulgated 20 September 2015; amended 2016 and 2020. Part 3, Article 30(1)–(3), pp. 15–16; Part 4, Article 51(g)(1)–(9), pp. 27–28. Checked 2026-10-10
  2. The Constitution of Nepal (English translation, as amended by the Second Amendment, 2020), Schedules 5–9 — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Promulgated 20 September 2015; amended 2016 and 2020. Schedule 5, items 27 and 29 (national and international environment management, national parks, carbon services; land use, human settlement development and environment adaptation policies), pp. 194–195; Schedule 6, item 19 (environment within the province), p. 197; Schedule 7, items 13 and 17 (environment protection; disaster preparedness, rescue, relief, recovery), pp. 198–199; Schedule 8, items 10 and 20 (local environment protection; disaster management), pp. 200–201; Schedule 9, items 7 and 9 (environment; disaster management), p. 202. Checked 2026-10-10
  3. The Constitution of Nepal (English translation, as amended by the Second Amendment, 2020) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Promulgated 20 September 2015; amended 2016 and 2020. Article 267(4) (mobilising the Nepal Army for disaster management); Part 30, Article 273(1)–(3) (emergency for natural disaster; provincial request). Checked 2026-10-10
  4. Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2074 (2017) (English translation, as amended 2075), in 'Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2074 and Rules, 2076' — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal, Act assented 2074/07/05 (22 October 2017); first amendment 2075/11/19; compilation published by MoHA 2076. Sections 3 and 5 (National Council), pp. 56–58; sections 6 and 8 (Executive Committee, incl. 8(i), (j), (l), (o)), pp. 58–62; sections 10–11 (Authority), pp. 63–65. Checked 2026-10-10
  5. Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2074 (2017) (English translation, as amended 2075) — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal, Act assented 2074/07/05 (22 October 2017); first amendment 2075/11/19. Section 13a (Provincial Disaster Management Council) and section 14 (Provincial Executive Committee), pp. 67–69; section 16 (District Disaster Management Committee), pp. 70–72; section 17 (Local Disaster Management Committee, incl. 17(2)(a), (b), (e), (f), (g), (j), (k), (m)), pp. 72–74. Checked 2026-10-10
  6. Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2074 (2017) (English translation, as amended 2075) and Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Rules, 2076 — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal, Act assented 2074/07/05 (22 October 2017); first amendment 2075/11/19; compilation published by MoHA 2076. Act: section 18 (security agencies; 18(2) Army for search, rescue and relief), pp. 74–75; section 22 (Disaster Management Fund at the central level; 22(3) Finance Ministry concurrence for foreign grants or loans; 22(7) Auditor General audit), pp. 77–78; section 23 (provincial, district and local funds), p. 78; section 39 (Government of Nepal sets minimum relief standards on the Executive Committee's recommendation), p. 84. Rules 2076: rule 10 (central fund kept by the Executive Committee, used as it decides, operated with the joint signature of NDRRMA's Chief Executive or delegate and its finance head), p. 99. Checked 2026-10-10
  7. The Environment Protection Act, 2019 (2076) (English translation) — Nepal Law Commission, Government of Nepal, Authenticated 2076.06.24 (11 October 2019); Act No. 9 of 2019. Preamble, p. 1; section 15 (control of pollution), pp. 9–10; sections 23–26 (climate change; adaptation plans at three levels), pp. 14–15; section 31 (Environment Protection Fund, audited by Auditor General), pp. 17–18; section 32 (council chaired by the Prime Minister), p. 18; section 36 (application for compensation), pp. 21–22. Checked 2026-10-10

Government plans & policy

  1. The Sixteenth Plan (Fiscal Year 2024/25–2028/29), English translation, Chapter 13: Biodiversity, Climate Change and Green Economy — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2024. Sections 13.1–13.2, pp. 205–207 (glacial lakes, intense rain, air pollution, around 263 local adaptation plans, climate budget tagging since FY 2011/12). Checked 2026-10-10
  2. Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) 3.0: loss and damage section — Government of Nepal (Ministry of Forests and Environment), 14 May 2025. pp. 30–31 (September 2024 rainfall: 249 deaths, about 11,000 families displaced, USD 345 million; Thame GLOF August 2024; more than 26 major GLOFs since 1970; at least 47 potentially dangerous glacial lakes; Fund for responding to Loss and Damage). Checked 2026-10-10
  3. Disaster Risk Reduction National Strategic Plan of Action 2018–2030 — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal, July 2018. Section 3.3 (vision, goal, targets), pp. 31–34: target table items 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 3.1. Checked 2026-10-10
  4. Disaster Risk Reduction National Strategic Plan of Action 2018–2030 — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal, July 2018. Action matrix, p. 118: 'Make a provision to allocate minimum 5% of annual budget by all sectoral agencies for disaster risk reduction' (short term; Ministry of Finance and NPC lead). Checked 2026-10-10
  5. National Adaptation Plan (NAP) 2021–2050 — Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, 2021 (copy published by MoFE with a comments notice). Summary, p. xii (64 priority programmes; USD 47.4 billion; USD 1.5 billion Nepal, USD 45.9 billion external; MoFE responsible for review; five-yearly review, update in 2031). Checked 2026-10-10
  6. Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) 3.0: Section III, adaptation priorities — Government of Nepal (Ministry of Forests and Environment), 14 May 2025. pp. 25–29: total cost of adaptation priorities USD 18–20 billion (p. 26); all 753 local governments with LAPA by 2035 (p. 26); air pollution disease burden target (p. 29); disaster risk reduction priorities: MHEWS action plan, 30 additional systems, 80% flood EWS access, glacial lake targets (p. 29). Checked 2026-10-10
  7. The Sixteenth Plan (Fiscal Year 2024/25–2028/29), English translation, Chapter 13: quantitative targets — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2024. Section 13.6, p. 214: indicator 2 (climate-responsive budget 6.0% → 20.0%), indicator 8 (local levels with LAPA 263 → 753); FY 2022/23 actual and FY 2028/29 target. Checked 2026-10-10
  8. The Sixteenth Plan (Fiscal Year 2024/25–2028/29), English translation, Chapter 7: urbanization and settlement — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2024. Strategies 1–2, p. 130 (building code capacity; disaster risk reduction in urban planning); programmes 11 and 13, p. 133 (building code in all municipalities; land use and building code reform); section 7.6 targets, p. 134 (municipalities implementing National Building Code: no baseline → 293; housing for disaster-displaced households 3,553 → 50,000). Checked 2026-10-10
  9. The Sixteenth Plan (Fiscal Year 2024/25–2028/29), English translation: infrastructure, hydro-met and insurance passages — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2024. p. 65, programme 21 (modernising water and meteorological services, impact-based forecasting); p. 110, item 9 (1,364 km embankments, 25 risk maps, outcomes 'falling short of expectations'); pp. 121–122, programme 22 (weather forecasting and early warning); p. 172, programme 6 (insurance for risk reduction). Checked 2026-10-10
  10. Budget Speech for Fiscal Year 2026/27 (unofficial English translation) — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026 (presented to the joint meeting of the Federal Parliament). Paragraph 51 'Forest, Environment, and Climate Adaptation', (a)–(f) and allocation line, pp. 31–32. Checked 2026-10-10
  11. Budget Speech for Fiscal Year 2026/27 (unofficial English translation) — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026. Paragraph 40(s) (climate-adaptive structures at high-risk highway points; Rs 3.17 billion for clearing landslide disruptions) and paragraph 41(c) (reconstruction of earthquake-damaged homes and buildings in Jajarkot and Rukum West), p. 20. Checked 2026-10-10
  12. Budget Speech for Fiscal Year 2026/27 (unofficial English translation) — Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal, 2026. Paragraph 14 (optimise use of climate funds); paragraph 60(e) (mandatory insurance when approving urban building maps), p. 39; paragraph 62(j) (disaster responders; risk transfer instruments including insurance), p. 41; paragraph 73(b) (income tax deduction up to NPR 10,000 for residential building insurance premiums), p. 46. Checked 2026-10-10
  13. The Sixteenth Plan (Fiscal Year 2024/25–2028/29), English translation, Chapter 13: strategies and programmes — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2024. Section 13.4 (strategies 1, 3, 7), pp. 209–211; section 13.5 (programmes 4–7: pollution control, climate risk and loss and damage reduction, local adaptability, climate finance), pp. 212–214. Checked 2026-10-10
  14. Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) 3.0 — Government of Nepal (Ministry of Forests and Environment), 14 May 2025. pp. 1–2 (scope to 2035; MoFE led preparation; mitigation cost USD 73.74 billion, 85.32% expected from international finance). Checked 2026-10-10

Official data

  1. Nepal Disaster Report 2024: Focus on Reconstruction and Resilience — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal (content coordination: NDRRMA), September 2024 (posted on ndrrma.gov.np 3 March 2025). Executive Summary, pp. VII–VIII (17 July 2018 – 16 July 2024: 32,375 incidents, 3,672 deaths, 446 missing, 11,752 injured, NPR 23.60 billion economic losses; deaths by hazard: landslides 878, fire 619, thunderbolt 477, drowning 346, flood 260); Chapter 2, section 2.3, p. 7 (same period: 2,996 deaths); Chapter 2, p. 11 (Jajarkot 2023 earthquake). Checked 2026-10-10
  2. Nepal Earthquake 2015: Post Disaster Needs Assessment, Vol. A: Key Findings — National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2015. Executive summary, p. xi (over 8,790 casualties, 22,300 injuries; over half a million houses destroyed; houses without seismic-resistant features; poorer rural areas more affected); p. xiv (effects NPR 706 billion: damage NPR 517 billion, losses NPR 189 billion); p. xx (recovery needs NPR 669 billion). Checked 2026-10-10
  3. Rasuwa-Bhotekoshi Flood 2026: Rapid Damage and Needs Assessment (RDNA) — National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority, September 2026. Executive summary and section 1.1.2 (origin: ice-and-rock avalanche in the upper Lhende Khola watershed, about 20 km upstream of the Rasuwagadhi border point); p. 11 (prepared under NDRRMA leadership with NPC support; cut-off 3 September 2026, finalised 10 September 2026); section 3.2, pp. 54–55 (effects NPR 40,828.91 crore = NPR 408.29 billion; recovery needs NPR 72,331.52 crore = NPR 723.32 billion); section 3.3, p. 61 (6.69% and 11.84% of preliminary nominal GDP FY 2024/25 of NPR 6,107.22 billion). Checked 2026-10-10
  4. Bhotekoshi–Trishuli Flood: Search, Rescue and Relief Update (10 Bhadra – 17 Asoj 2083 / 26 August – 3 October 2026) — National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority, Ministry of Home Affairs, 8 October 2026. PDF page numbers (most pages carry the same number): p. 2 (cause: ice and rock avalanche, not monsoon rain; flood reached Rasuwagadhi 08:45); pp. 3–4 (timeline of warnings; 679,295 SMS via Nepal Telecom and Ncell; evacuation requests up to 200 m above the riverbank); p. 5 (infographic dated 17 Asoj 2083: 'Total Deaths 1,455' including partial body parts/remains; 'Total Missing 5,285', excluding 112 bodies identified to date, with the caveat that it may include unidentified bodies, people rescued and duplicate records and may increase or decrease; total rescues 13,795); p. 6 (relief allocations NPR 370 million); pp. 9–10 (RDNA key figures); p. 11 (bodies recovered: 1,455); p. 14 (17 holding centres; alternative housing and livelihood grant: NPR 15,000 a month for up to four members plus NPR 2,000 per additional member, up to six months); p. 15 (survey of 2,027 households: 25.3% with own land for temporary structures, 8.0% with another home outside the affected area). Checked 2026-10-10
  5. मनसुन २०८२ को अवस्था प्रतिवेदन (Monsoon 2082 Situation Report) — National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority, Ministry of Home Affairs, Covers 2082 Jestha 15 – Asoj 24; posted 11 November 2025. p. 1 (highlights: 140 deaths, 30 missing, 300 injured, 5,995 families directly affected; previous year 495 deaths, 66 missing, 522 injured; Madhesh declared crisis area 2082 Saun 8; Ilam declared 2082 Asoj 23; Rasuwa Bhotekoshi flood of 2082 Asar 24). Checked 2026-10-10
  6. A Preliminary Loss and Damage Assessment of Flood and Landslide, September 2024 — National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority, Ministry of Home Affairs, 28 October 2024. Executive Summary and summary table, pp. 1–2 (total NPR 46,684,318,550; physical infrastructure NPR 38,923,435,000; 5,996 houses fully and 13,049 partially destroyed; 10,807 displaced families; 249 deaths, 178 injured, 18 missing); Background, p. 4 (246 fatalities); provincial overview, p. 17 (238 deaths). Checked 2026-10-10
  7. Status of Air Quality in Nepal: Annual Report, 2025 — Department of Environment, Government of Nepal, 2025 (linked from doenv.gov.np/content/130/). Executive summary (कार्यकारी सारांश), PDF pp. 9–10 (31 stations; 14 used; seasonal pattern; cross-border pollution; annual averages for 5 stations, 4 above the national annual PM2.5 standard of 25 µg/m³ under the National Air Quality Standards 2082; highest in Kathmandu Valley). Checked 2026-10-10
  8. Nepal Disaster Report 2024: Chapter 6, recovery and reconstruction — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal, September 2024. Section 6.3 and 6.3.2, pp. 57–58 (833,821 damaged households, 736,767 reconstructed, 88.36%; 925 of 1,136 health facilities; about 671 settlements in 29 districts under geo-hazard assessment and resettlement; urban reconstruction 61.61% of 373,104 eligible urban households, rural 88.36%; 38% of earthquake-affected households in Kathmandu Valley urban municipalities). Checked 2026-10-10
  9. 25–28 September Heavy Rainfall Situation Report #1 — National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority, 28 September 2026, 19:00. pp. 1–2 (forecast lead time extended from 3 to 5 days for major rivers; about 980,000 targeted flood warning SMS; DHM bulletins). Checked 2026-10-10
  10. आर्थिक वर्ष २०८२/०८३ को वार्षिक प्रगति विवरण (Annual Progress Report, FY 2082/083; proactive disclosure under the Right to Information Act) — National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority, Posted 30 July 2026. Section 2.7(क), printed p. 36 (Disaster Management Fund: opening balance Rs 4,26,37,61,744.04; income Rs 5,30,00,000; bank adjustment Rs 1,81,550; expenditure Rs 20,34,29,314; closing balance Rs 4,11,31,50,880.04); Annex 6 (BIPAD portal). Checked 2026-10-10
  11. महालेखापरीक्षकको त्रिसट्ठिऔं वार्षिक प्रतिवेदन, सारांश-२०८३ (Auditor General's 63rd Annual Report, Summary 2083) — Office of the Auditor General, Nepal, 2083 BS / 2026. Chapter 5 (भविष्यमा गर्नुपर्ने सुधार), item 17 'आयोजना व्यवस्थापन', points 17.6–17.7, printed pp. 62–63 (PDF pp. 72–73). Checked 2026-10-10
  12. Rasuwa-Bhotekoshi Flood 2026: Rapid Damage and Needs Assessment (RDNA) — National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority, September 2026 (finalised 10 September 2026). Section 3.1, pp. 52–53 (as of 6:00 p.m., 10 September 2026: 1,377 recovered bodies and records of human remains, 5,130 recorded missing, 13,676 rescued; categories 'subject to verification' and not mutually exclusive; missing list may include unidentified deceased, duplicates or people later rescued; 7,570 affected private buildings, 8,317 households, 32,963 people). Checked 2026-10-10
  13. Rasuwa-Bhotekoshi Flood 2026: Rapid Damage and Needs Assessment, section 4.4.5 Disaster and Climate Risk Management — National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority, September 2026. pp. 112–113 (DRR recovery needs NPR 9,475.31 crore: NPR 35.00 crore for a multi-hazard early warning system and NPR 9,440.31 crore for longer-term works; largest modelled component river management and settlement protection, NPR 6,765.80 crore before VAT; 'The RDNA did not evaluate warning performance comprehensively' and a subsequent assessment should examine whether warnings reached communities in time and could be acted on). Checked 2026-10-10
  14. Nepal Disaster Report 2024: Section 3.2, multi-hazard early warning — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal, September 2024. Section 3.2, pp. 28–29 (early warning predominantly for floods; move to impact-based multi-hazard warning). Checked 2026-10-10
  15. Nepal Disaster Report 2024: Section 5.4, disaster risk financing — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal, September 2024. Section 5.4.1, pp. 47–48 (NPR 50 billion spent on response and recovery 2012–2020, 'not financially sustainable in the long run'; ex ante financing 'very scarce'; National Strategy for the Management of Disaster Risk Financing (2021) with 15 strategic actions; federal fund used mainly for response and relief). Checked 2026-10-10

Independent research

  1. Integrated Settlements Developed after the Mw 7.8 Gorkha-Nepal Earthquake: Lessons Learned and Future Perspectives — Journal of Diaspora Research (University of New Brunswick Libraries); authors Tara Nidhi Bhattarai, Santa Man Rai, Jagat Basnet, 30 July 2026; Journal of Diaspora Research, Vol. 1, Issue 1, Article 260102, pp. 13–31 (ISSN 3111-3079; doi:10.33802/jdr.39811). Abstract (12 NRA-built integrated settlements in Rasuwa, Nuwakot, Sindhupalchok and Gorkha; livelihood, cultural and space concerns; residents locked buildings and returned or moved; most not engaged in decisions; recommends participatory approaches involving federal, provincial and local governments); section 2, pp. 15–16 (methods and limitations). Checked 2026-10-10

News reports

  1. Nepal weighing options to relocate Bhotekoshi flood survivors (Ganga BC and Bimal Khatiwada) — The Kathmandu Post, 3 September 2026. Whole article: NDRRMA chief executive Dharmaraj Upreti ('People cannot return to settlements that have been swept away'; options include other districts or safer vacant land within affected districts); Infrastructure Ministry secretary (detailed plan will decide whether families get grants or the government builds); former NRA chief executives Sushil Gyewali (moving people far 'was not feasible'; few viable sites in Rasuwa; people 'should not be forced to remain' in unsafe areas) and Govinda Pokharel (move roads first); NPC vice-chair on preparations for a PDNA. Checked 2026-10-10

Corrections & right of reply

Parties, leaders and readers may ask us to correct an error or add a documented response. Corrections are published visibly with the date and reason; no one can pay to change coverage.

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Change history
  1. 2026-10-09 — First draft of the environment and disaster resilience issue page (all eight questions), with sources opened on this date. (New topic page for the National Agenda; submitted for editorial and native Nepali review. Party positions deliberately left out pending research covering all parties in the House at once.)
  2. 2026-10-10 — Independent fact-check: every cited source re-downloaded and each claim checked at its locator; accessed dates set to 2026-10-10; version 2. (Pre-publication verification. Details and per-item outcomes are in research-notes/environment-disaster.md (Verification 2026-10-10).)
  3. 2026-10-10 — Bhotekoshi–Trishuli flood counts updated to NDRRMA's latest figures (as of 3 October 2026: 1,455 deaths including partial remains; 5,285 missing), attributed and dated, with NDRRMA's statement that they are provisional, unreconciled and may rise or fall. The 10 September RDNA figures are kept only in evidence.uncertain to show how the counts have changed. (Use the newest official count (NDRRMA update dated 8 October 2026, Nepali version 4 October); no newer official update was found. The classification previously gave the older 10 September figures, and the 'why' item gave 1,455 'bodies recovered' without the missing count or the provisional caveat.)
  4. 2026-10-10 — Flood origin reworded from 'an ice and rock avalanche across the border' to the RDNA's wording: an ice-and-rock avalanche in the upper Lhende Khola watershed, about 20 km upstream of the Rasuwagadhi border point. Removed 'the largest disaster since 2015'. (Neither official source states the avalanche site's country in those words (the update places it on the northern side of Langtang Lirung and also describes the flood as coming from Tibet), and no source makes the 'largest since 2015' ranking.)
  5. 2026-10-10 — Disclosed conflicting official figures instead of using one silently: 2024 national disaster report deaths 3,672 (executive summary) vs 2,996 (chapter 2); September 2024 flood deaths 249 vs 246 and 238 within NDRRMA's assessment; 88.36% labelled both overall and rural reconstruction rate (overall matches the household counts); displaced families 10,807 (NDRRMA) vs about 11,000 (NDC). (Conflicts found or confirmed in the sources; the schema requires disclosure rather than silent choice.)
  6. 2026-10-10 — Relocation material rewritten: news statements attributed to The Kathmandu Post and limited to what it reports (NDRRMA chief executive on settlements that cannot be reoccupied and options under consideration; a former reconstruction chief on feasibility and on not forcing people to stay in unsafe places); 'officials publicly disagreed' removed; costs of both moving and staying stated; added NDRRMA's household survey (25.3% with own land for temporary shelter, 8.0% with another home). (The article does not report a disagreement over who builds homes (the secretary said this was undecided), and relocation is a contested choice whose costs to affected people should be stated even-handedly.)
  7. 2026-10-10 — Bhattarai, Rai and Basnet (2026) kept: journal confirmed as Journal of Diaspora Research (UNB Libraries, Vol. 1 Issue 1, ISSN 3111-3079); full text read; described as a small qualitative study rather than an 'independent study', with its method limits and the authors' stated NRA advisory roles disclosed. (The abstract and full text support the claims used, but the study is small, non-representative and two authors had reconstruction roles, so 'independent' and general wording overstated it.)
  8. 2026-10-10 — Corrections to wording: Schedule 5 says 'environment adaptation', not 'climate adaptation'; Kathmandu Valley 38% is of earthquake-affected (not 'eligible') households; the Executive Committee recommends (not sets) minimum relief standards (Act s. 39); NDRRMA operates the central fund on the Executive Committee's decisions (Rules 2076, r. 10); the fund table in NDRRMA's progress report is no longer called 'central' because the report does not label it so, and the bank adjustment is mentioned; housing grant now includes NPR 2,000 per additional member and 'until alternative housing is arranged'; RDNA says it did not evaluate warning performance 'comprehensively'; budget 'leans on insurance' changed to 'promises to expand disaster insurance'; NDC 'most depend on international support' changed to the NDC's own wording; risk-financing strategy given its full name. (Each wording now matches the source text at the stated locator.)
  9. 2026-10-10 — Softened unsupported or overstated framing: dek 'wipe out years of development in a day', 'set the country back years', 'directly attacks the main cause', 'relatively low cost', 'safe land ... expensive near towns', 'finance that has not been secured', 'nonetheless' in the embankments item, and 'work best together, and most countries mix them' in combinations. (Not stated in the cited sources; replaced with wording the sources support or with neutral framing.)
  10. 2026-10-10 — Published after independent source-by-source verification. Party positions not yet included (to be added for all House parties together). Nepali text awaiting native review. (Editorial decisions: 2026 Bhotekoshi–Trishuli flood counts shown exactly as NDRRMA reported them as of 3 October 2026, labelled provisional; to be updated when a newer or reconciled official figure is published. Relocation statements kept only as reported. Bhattarai et al. kept as a small qualitative study with authors’ advisory roles disclosed.)